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See also:CINEMATOGRAPH, or KINEMATOGRAPH (from Ki.vm,ua, See also:motion, and'yplu etv, to depict) , an apparatus in which a See also:series of views representing closely successive phases of a moving See also:object are exhibited in rapid sequence, giving a picture which, owing to persistence of See also:vision, appears to the observer to be in continuous motion. It is a development of the zoetrope or " See also:wheel of See also:life," described by W. G. See also:Horner about 1833, which consists of a hollow See also:cylinder turning on a See also:vertical See also:axis and having its See also:surface pierced with a number of slots. See also:Round the interior is arranged a series of pictures representing successive stages of such a subject as a galloping See also:horse, and when the cylinder is rotated an observer looking through one of the slots See also:sees the horse apparently in motion. The pictures were at first See also:drawn by See also:hand, but See also:photography was afterwards applied to their See also:production. E. Muybridge about 1877 obtained successive pictures of a See also:running horse by employing a See also:row of cameras, the shutters of which were opened and closed electrically by the passage of the horse in front of them, and in 1883 E. J. Marey of See also:Paris established a studio for investigating the motion of animals by similar photographic methods.
The See also:modern cinematograph was rendered possible by the invention of the celluloid See also:roll film (employed by Marey in 1890), on which the serial pictures are impressed by instantaneous photography, a See also:long sensitized film being moved across the See also:focal See also:plane of a See also:camera and exposed intermittently. In one apparatus for making the exposures a See also:cam jerks the film across the See also:- FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
- FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
- FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
- FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
- FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
- FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
- FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
- FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
- FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
- FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
- FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)
field once for each picture, the slack being gathered in on a See also:drum at a See also:constant See also:rate. In another four lenses are rotated so as to give four images for each rotation, the film travelling so as to See also:present a new portion in the field as each See also:lens comes in See also:place. Sixteen to fifty pictures may be taken per second. The films are See also:developed on large drums, within which a See also:ruby electric See also:light may be fixed to enable the See also:process to be watched. A See also:positive is made from the negative thus obtained, and is passed through an See also:optical See also:lantern, the images being thus successively projected through an See also:objective lens upon a distant See also:screen. For an See also:hour's See also:exhibition 50,000 to 165,000 pictures are needed. To regulate the feed in the lantern a hole is punched in the film for each picture. These holes must be extremely accurate in position;' when they See also:wear the feed becomes irregular, and the picture dances or vibrates in an unpleasant manner. Another method of exhibiting cinematographic effects is to bind the pictures together in See also:book See also:form by one edge, and then See also:release them from the other in rapid See also:succession by means of the thumb or some See also:mechanical See also:device as the book is See also:bent backwards. In this See also:case the subject is viewed, not by See also:projection, but directly, either with the unaided See also:eye or through a magnifying See also:glass.
Cinematograph films produced by See also:ordinary photographic processes, being in See also:black and See also:- WHITE
- WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
- WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
- WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
- WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
- WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
- WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
- WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
- WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
- WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
- WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
- WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
- WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
- WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)
white only, fail to reproduce the colouring of the subjects they represent. To some extent this defect has been remedied by See also:painting them by hand, but this method is too expensive for See also:general See also:adoption, and moreover does not yield very satisfactory results. Attempts to adapt three-See also:colour photography, by using simultaneously three films, each with a source of light of appropriate colour, and combining the three images on the screen, have to overcome See also:great difficulties in regard to See also:maintenance of See also:register, because very See also:minute errors of See also:adjustment between the pictures on the films are magnified to an intolerable extent by projection. In a process devised by G. A. See also:- SMITH
- SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
- SMITH, ALEXANDER (183o-1867)
- SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897)
- SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842–1908)
- SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807–1862)
- SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806)
- SMITH, COLVIN (1795—1875)
- SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893)
- SMITH, G
- SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846)
- SMITH, GEORGE (184o-1876)
- SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- )
- SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874)
- SMITH, GOLDWIN (1823-191o)
- SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877)
- SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883)
- SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847– )
- SMITH, JAMES (1775–1839)
- SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631)
- SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1752–1812)
- SMITH, JOSEPH, JR
- SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822–1874)
- SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861)
- SMITH, ROBERT (1689-1768)
- SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN
- SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577)
- SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893)
- SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840)
- SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845)
- SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861)
- SMITH, WILLIAM (1769-1839)
- SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819)
- SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596)
- SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824—1903)
- SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808—1872)
- SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825—1891)
- SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-'894)
Smith, the results of which were exhibited at the Society of Arts, See also:London, in See also:December 1908, the number of colour records was reduced' to two. The films were specially treated to increase their sensitiveness to red. The photographs were taken through two colour filters alternately interposed in front of the film; both admitted white and yellow, but one, of red, was in addition specially concerned with the See also:orange and red of the subject, and the other, of See also:blue-See also:green, with the green, blue-green, blue and See also:violet. The camera was arranged to take not less than 16 pictures a second through each See also:filter, or 32 a second in all. The positive transparency made from the negative thus obtained
was used in a lantern so arranged that beams of red (composed of See also:crimson and yellow) and of green (composed of yellow and blue) issued from the lens alternately, the mechanism presenting the pictures made with the red filter to the red See also:beam, and those made with the green filter to the green beam. A supplementary shutter was provided to introduce violet and blue, to compensate for the deficiency in those See also:colours caused by the See also:necessity of cutting them out in the camera owing to the over-sensitiveness of the film to them, and the result was that the successive pictures, blending on the screen by persistence of vision, gave a See also:reproduction of the See also:scene photographed in colours which were sensibly the same as those of the See also:original.
The cinematograph enables "living" or "animated pictures" of such subjects as an See also:army on the See also:march, or an See also:express See also:train at full See also:speed, to be presented with marvellous distinctness and completeness of detail. See also:Machines of this See also:kind have been devised in enormous See also:numbers and used for purposes of amusement under names (bioscope, biograph, kinetoscope, mutograph, &c.) formed chiefly from combinations of See also:Greek and Latin words for life, See also:movement, See also:change, &c., with suffixes taken from such words as o'Ko7rE6v, to see, yp64 as, to depict; they have also been combined with phonographic apparatus, so that, for example, the See also:music of a See also:dance and the motions of the dancer are simultaneously reproduced to See also:ear and eye. But when they are used in public places of entertainment, owing to the extreme inflammability of the celluloid film and its employment in See also:close proximity to a powerful source of light and See also:heat, such as is required if the pictures are to show brightly on the screen, precautions must be taken to prevent, as far as possible, the heat rays from reaching it, and effective means must be provided to extinguish it should it take See also:fire. The production of films composed of non-inflammable material has also engaged the See also:attention of inventors.
See H. V. Hopwood, Living Pictures (London, 1899), containing a bibliography and a See also:digest of the See also:British See also:patents, which is supplemented in the Optician, vol. xviii. p. 85; See also:EugEne Trutat, La Photographie animee (1899), which contains a See also:list of the See also:French patents. For the camera see also PHOTOGRAPHY.: Apparatus.
End of Article: CINEMATOGRAPH, or KINEMATOGRAPH (from Ki.vm,ua, motion, and'yplu etv, to depict)
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