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OVK obata, 06K GYOhO'LOV, Obx &irXOUV, Oil 0hVOETOV, OLK 1tPhnTOV, 06K l6Val?Oflrov, aim av9pc7rOS. . aim AV BEDS f6.Vo1 rwc, &ve eOi ean, &/906kas, a1rpoaLp&Tws, IL7raO@s, hs€ OW*0n KLO/lOV i/OEX es 7r06T]0a6 . OUTWS obi( Av OEhs E7rotiare K6cij ov obK ivra E 06K bVTOW, Karat3aXOl.6EVOS vat U7roericas airEpaa T6 Egv ixov 7raeaz v EaurCJ Tiv TOU K6Q/AOO 7ravo1rEpplaY (Philos. vii. 20 seq.). See See also:GNOSTICISM, See also:BASILIDES, FCC. an acquaintance with Judaism and See also:Christianity. But if we See also:search See also:Plotinus for See also:evidence of any actual See also:influence of Jewish and See also:Christian See also:philosophy, we search in vain; and the existence of any such influence is all the more unlikely because it is only the later See also:Neoplatonism that offers striking and deep-rooted See also:parallels to See also:Philo and the Gnostics. The Philonic and Gnostic philosophies thus appear to be merely an See also:historical anticipation of the Neoplatonic, without any real connexion. Nor is there anything mysterious in such an anticipation. It simply means that a certain religious and philosophical tendency, which See also:grew up slowly on See also:Greek See also:soil, was already implanted in those who occupied the vantage-ground of a revealed See also:religion of redemption. We have to come down to See also:Iamblichus and his school before we find See also:complete See also:correspondence with the Christian Gnosticism of the 2nd See also:century; that is to say, it is only in the 4th century that Greek philosophy in its proper development reaches the See also:stage at which certain Greek philosophers who had embraced Christianity had arrived in the 2nd century. The influence of Christianity—whether Gnostic or See also:Catholic —on Neoplatonism was at no See also:time very considerable, although individual Neoplatonists, after Amelius, used Christian texts as oracles, and put on See also:record their admiration for See also:Christ. See also:History and Doctrines.—The founder of the Neoplatonic school in See also:Alexandria is supposed to have been Ammonius Saccas (q.v.). Plotinus. But the Enneads of his See also:pupil Plotinus are the See also:primary and classical document of Neoplatonism. The See also:doctrine of Plotinus is See also:mysticism, and like all mysticism it consists of two See also:main divisions. The first or theoretical See also:part deals with the high origin of the human soul, and shows how it has departed from its first See also:estate. In the second or See also:practical part the way is pointed out by which the soul may again return to the Eternal and Supreme. Since the soul in its longings reaches forth beyond all sensible things, beyond the See also:world of ideas even, it follows that the highest being must be something supra-rational. The See also:system thus embraces three heads—(r) the primeval Being, (2) the ideal world and the soul, (3) the phenomenal world. We may also, however, in accordance with the views of Plotinus, See also:divide thus: (A) the invisible world—(r) the primeval Being, (2) the ideal world, (3) the soul; (B) the phenomenal world. The primeval Being is, as opposed to the many, the One; as opposed to the finite, the See also:Infinite, the unlimited. It is the source of all See also:life, and therefore See also:absolute causality and the only real existence. It is, moreover, the See also:Good, in so far as all finite things have their purpose in it, and ought to flow back to it. But one cannot attach moral attributes to the See also:original Being itself, because these would imply See also:limitation. It has no attributes of any See also:kind; it is being without magnitude, without life, without thought; in strict propriety, indeed, we ought not to speak of it as existing; it is " above existence," " above goodness." It is also active force without a substratum; as active force the primeval Being is perpetually producing something else, without alteration, or See also:motion, or diminution of itself. This See also:production is not a See also:physical See also:process, but an emission of force; and, since the product has real existence only in virtue of the original existence working in it, Neoplatonism may be described as a See also:species of dynamic See also:pantheism. Directly or indirectly, everything is brought forth by the " One." In it all things, so far as they have being, are divine, and See also:God is all in all. Derived existence, however, is' not like the original Being itself, but is subject to a See also:law of diminishing completeness. It is indeed an See also:image and reflection of the first Being; but the further the See also:line of successive projections is prolonged the smaller is its See also:share in the true existence. The totality of being may thus be conceived as a See also:series of concentric circles, fading away towards the See also:verge of non-existence, the force of the original Being in the outermost circle being a vanishing quantity. Each See also:lower stage of being is See also:united with the " One " by all the higher stages, and receives its share of reality only by transmission through them. All derived existence, however, has a See also:drift towards, a longing for, the higher, and bends towards it so far as its nature will permit. The original Being first of all throws out the nous, which is a perfect image of the One and the archetype of all existing things. It is at once being and thought, ideal world and See also:idea. As image, the nous corresponds perfectly to the One, but as derived it is entirely different. What Plotinus understands by the nous is the highest See also:sphere accessible to the human mind (sbauor voi7r6s), and, along with that, pure thought itself. The image and product of the motionless nous is the soul, which, according to Plotinus is, like the nous, immaterial. Its relation to the nous is the same as that of the nous to the One. It stands between the nous and the phenomenal world, is permeated and illuminated by the former, but is also in contact with the latter. The nous is indivisible; the soul may preserve its unity and remain in the nous, but at the same time it has the See also:power of uniting with the corporeal world and thus being disintegrated. It therefore occupies an intermediate position. As a single soul (world-soul) it belongs in essence and destination to the intelligible world; but it also embraces See also:inn merable individual souls; and these can either submit to be ruled-by the nous, or turn aside to the sensual and lose themselves in the finite. Then the soul, a moving essence, generates the corporeal or phenomenal world. This world ought to be so pervaded by the soul that its various parts should remain in perfect See also:harmony. Plotinus is no dualist, like the Christian Gnostics; he admires the beauty and splendour of the world. So See also:long as idea governs See also:matter, or the soul governs the See also:body, the world is See also:fair and good. It is an image—though a shadowy image—of the upper world, and the degrees of better and worse in it are essential to the harmony of the whole. But in the actual phenomenal world unity and harmony are replaced by strife and discord; the result is a conflict, a becoming and vanishing, an illusive existence. And the See also:reason for this See also:state of things is that bodies See also:rest on a substratum of matter. Matter is the basework of each (ro /3aOor EKavrov s} uX) ; it is the dark principle, the indeterminate, that which has no qualities, the µ,} OP. Destitute of See also:form and idea, it is evil; as capable of form it is neutral. The human souls which have descended into corporeality are those which have allowed themselves to be ensnared by sensuality and overpowered by lust. They now seek to cut themselves loose from their true being; and, striving after See also:independence, they assume a false existence. They must turn back from this; and, since they have not lost their freedom, a See also:conversion is still possible. Here, then, we enter upon the practical philosophy. Along the same road by which it descended the soul must retrace its steps back to the supreme Good. It must first of all return to itself. This is accomplished by the practice of virtue, which aims at likeness to God, and leads up to God. In the See also:ethics of Plotinus all the older schemes of virtue are taken over and arranged in a graduated series. The lowest stage is that of the See also:civil virtues, then follow the purifying, and last of all the divine virtues. The civil virtues merely adorn the life, without elevating the soul. That is the See also:office of the purifying virtues, by which the soul is freed from sensuality and led back to itself, and thence to the nous. By means of ascetic observances the See also:man becomes once more a spiritual and enduring being, See also:free from all See also:sin. But there is still a higher attainment; it is not enough to be sinless, one must become " God." This is reached through contemplation of the primeval Being, the One—in other words, through an ecstatic approach to it. Thought cannot attain to this, for thought reaches only to the nous, and is itself a kind of motion. It is only in a state of perfect passivity and repose that the soul can recognize and See also:touch the primeval Being. Hence the soul must first pass through a spiritual curriculum. Beginning with the contemplation of corporeal things in their multiplicity and harmony, it then retires upon itself and withdraws into the depths of its own being, rising thence to the nous, the world of ideas. But even there it does not find the Highest, the One; it still hears a See also:voice saying, " not we have made ourselves." The last stage is reached when, in the highest tension and concentration, beholding in silence and utter forgetfulness of all things, it is able as it were to lose itself. Then it may see God, the See also:fountain of life, the source of being, the origin of all good, the See also:root of the soul. In that moment it enjoys the highest indescribable See also:bliss; it is as it were swallowed up of divinity, bathed in the See also:light of eternity., Such is the religious philosophy of Plotinus, and for himself personally it sufficed, without the aid of the popular religion or See also:worship. Nevertheless he sought for points of support in these. God is certainly in the truest sense nothing but the primeval Being; but He reveals Himself in a variety of emanations and manifestations. The nous is a sort of second god, the Abyor which are wrapped up in it are gods, the stars are gods, and so on. A rigid monotheism appeared to Plotinus a miserable conception. He gave a meaning to the myths of the popular religions, and he had something to say even for magic, soothsaying and See also:prayer. In support of image-worship he advanced
1 See also:Porphyry tells us that on four occasions during the six years of their intercourse Plotinus attained to this ecstatic See also:union with God.
arguments which were afterwards adopted by the Christian image-worshippers. Still, as compared with the later Neoplatonists, he is comparatively free from crass superstition and See also:wild fanaticism. He is not to be classed amongst the " deceived deceivers," and the restoration of the worship of the old gods was by no means his See also:chief See also:object.
Amongst his pupils, Amelius and Porphyry are the most eminent. Amelius modified the teaching of Plotinus on certain PorPLyry, points; and he also put some value on the See also:prologue
to the See also:Gospel of See also: He was not an original thinker, but a diligent student, distinguished by See also:great learning, by a turn for historical and philological See also:criticism, and by an See also:earnest purpose to uproot false teaching—especially Christianity, to ennoble men and See also:train them to goodness. The system of Porphyry is more emphatically practical and religious than that of Plotinus. The object of philosophy, according to Porphyry, is the salvation of the soul. The origin and the blame of evil are not in the body, but in the desires of the soul. Hence the strictest See also:asceticism (See also:abstinence from flesh, and See also:wine, and sexual intercourse) is demanded, as well as the knowledge of God. As he advanced in life, Porphyry protested more and more earnestly against the See also:rude faith of the See also:common See also:people and their immoral worships. But, outspoken as he was in his criticism of the popular religions, he had no wish to give them up. He stood up for a pure worship of the many gods, and maintained the cause of every old See also:national religion and the ceremonial duties of its adherents. His See also:work Against the Christians was directed, not against Christ, nor even against what he believed to be Christ's teaching, but against the Christians of his own See also:day and their sacred books, which, according to Porphyry, were the work of deceivers and ignorant people. In his trenchant criticism of the origin of what passed for Christianity in his time, he spoke See also:bitter and severe truths, which have gained for him the reputation of the most rabid and wicked of all the enemies of Christianity. His work was destroyed,' but the copious extracts which we find in Lactantius, See also:Augustine, See also:Jerome, Macarius See also:Magnus and others show how profoundly he had studied the Christian writings, and how great was his See also:talent for real historical See also:research. Porphyry marks the transition to a new phase of Neoplatonism, in which it becomes completely subservient to polytheism, and See also:lamb/I- seeks before everything else to protect the Greek and coos. See also:Oriental religions from the formidable See also:assault of Christianity. In the hands of Iamblichus (q.v.), the pupil of Porphyry, Neoplatonism is changed " from a philosophical theory to a theological doctrine." The distinctive tenets of Iamblichus cannot be accounted for from scientific but only from practical considerations. In See also:order to justify superstition and the See also:ancient forms of worship, philosophy becomes in his hands a theurgy, a knowledge of mysteries, a sort of See also:spiritualism. To this See also:period also belongs a set of " philosophers," with regard to whom it is impossible to say whether they are dupes or impostors—the "decepti deceptores" of whom Augustine speaks. In this philosophy the mystical properties of See also:numbers are a leading feature; absurd and See also:mechanical notions are glossed over with the sheen of sacramental See also:mystery; myths are explained by pious fancies and See also:fine-See also:sounding pietistic reflections; miracles, even the most ridiculous, are believed in, and miracles are wrought. The " philosopher " has become a See also:priest of magic and philosophy a method of See also:incantation. Moreover, in the unbridled exercise of See also:speculation, the number of divine beings was increased indefinitely; and these fantastic accessions to See also:Olympus in the system of Iamblichus show that Greek philosophy is returning to See also:mythology, and that nature-religion is still a power in the world. And yet it is undeniable that the very noblest and choicest minds of the 4th century are to be found in the ranks of the Neoplatonists. So great was the See also:general decline that this Neoplatonic philosophy offered a welcome shelter to many earnest and influential men, in spite of the 1 It was condemned by an See also:edict of the emperors See also:Theodosius II. and Valentinian in the See also:year 448.charlatans and hypocrites who were gathered under the same roof. On certain points of doctrine, too, the dogmatic of Iamblichus indicates a real advance. Thus his emphatic assertion of the truth that the seat of evil is in the will is noteworthy; and so also is his repudiation of Plotinus's theory of the divinity of the soul. The numerous followers of Iamblichus—See also:Aedesius, See also:Chrysanthius, See also:Eusebius, See also:Priscus, Sopater, See also:Sallust, and, most famous of all, See also:Maximus (q.v.), rendered little service to speculation. Some of them (See also:Themistius in particular) are known as commentators on the older. philosophers, and others as the missionaries of mysticism. The work De mysteriis Aegyptiorum is the best See also:sample of the views and aims of these philosophers. Their hopes See also:rose high when See also:Julian ascended the imperial See also:throne (361-363). But the See also:emperor himself lived long enough to see that his romantic policy of restoration was to leave no results; and after his See also:early See also:death all See also:hope of extinguishing Christianity was abandoned.
But undoubtedly the victory of Christianity in the See also:age of Valentinian and Theodosius had a purifying influence on Neoplatonism. During the struggle for supremacy, the philosophers had been driven to make common cause Influence with everything that was hostile to Christianity. ti Chris
y.
of - tianity.
But now Neoplatonism was thrust from the great stage
of history. The See also: In the chief cities of the See also:empire Neoplatonic See also:schools flourished till the beginning of the 5th century; during this period, indeed, they were the. training-schools of Christian theologians. At Alexandria the See also:noble See also:Hypatia (q.v.) taught, to whose memory her impassioned See also:disciple See also:Synesius, afterwards a See also:bishop, reared a splendid See also:monument. But after the beginning of the 5th century the fanaticism of the church could no longer endure the presence of " heathenism." The See also:murder of Hypatia was the death of philosophy in Alexandria, although the school there maintained a lingering existence till the See also:middle of the 6th century. But there was one See also:city of the See also:East which, lying apart from the crowded highways of the world, had sunk to a See also:mere provincial See also:town, and yet possessed associations which the church of the 5th century See also:felt herself powerless to eradicate. In See also:Athens a Neoplatonic school still flourished. There, under the monuments of its glorious past; See also:Hellenism found its last See also:retreat. The school of Athens returned to a stricter philosophical method and the cultivation of scholarship. Still holding by a religious philosophy, it under-took to reduce the whole Greek tradition, as seen in the light of Plotinus, to a comprehensive and closely knit system. Hence the philosophy which arose at Athens was what may fairly be termed See also:scholasticism. For every philosophy is scholastic whose subject-matter is imaginative and mystical, and which handles this subject-matter according to established rules in logical categories and distinctions. Now to these Neoplatonists, the books of Plato, along with certain divine oracles, the Orphic poems, and much more which they assigned to a remote antiquity, were documents of canonical authority; they were inspired divine writings. Out of these they See also:drew the material of their philosophy, which they then proceeded to elaborate with the appliances of See also:dialectic. The most distinguished teachers at Athens were See also:Plutarch (q.v.), his disciple See also:Syrianus (who did important work as a commentator on Plato and Aristotle, and further deserves proctors. mention for his vigorous See also:defence of the freedom of the will), but above all See also:Proclus (411-485). Proclus is the great schoolman of Neoplatonism. It was he who, combining religious' ardour with formal acuteness, connected the whole See also:mass of mutually See also:independent. It must be confessed that when Chris-traditional See also:lore into a huge system, making good defects, and smoothing away contradictions by means of distinctions and speculations. " It was reserved for Proclus," says See also:Zeller, " to bring the Neoplatonic philosophy to its formal conclusion by the rigorous consistency of his dialectic, and, keeping in view all the modifications which it had undergone in the course of two centuries, to give it that form in which it was transferred to Christianity and Mahommedanism in the middle ages." See also:Forty-four years after the death of Proclus the school of Athens was closed by Justinian (A.D. 529); but it had already fulfilled its See also:mission in the work of Proclus. The See also:works of Proclus, as the last testament of Hellenism to the church and the middle ages, exerted an incalculable influence on the next thousand years. They not only formed one of the See also:bridges by which the See also:medieval thinkers got back to Plato and Aristotle; they determined the scientific method of See also:thirty generations, and they partly created and partly nourished the Christian mysticism of the middle ages. The disciples of Proclus are not eminent (See also:Marinus, See also:Asclepiodotus, Ammonius, See also:Zenodotus, Isidorus, Hegias, See also:Damascius). The last See also:president of the Athenian school was Damascius (q.v.). When Justinian issued the edict for the suppression of the school, Damascius along with See also:Simplicius (the painstaking commentator on Aristotle) and five other Neoplatonists set out to make a See also:home in See also:Persia. They found the conditions were unfavourable and were allowed to return (see See also:CHOSROES I.). At the beginning of the 6th century Neoplatonism had ceased to exist in the East as an independent philosophy. Almost at the same time, however—and the coincidence is not accidental—it made new conquests in the church theology through the writings of the pseudo-See also:Dionysius. It began to See also:bear See also:fruit in Christian mysticism, and to diffuse a new magical See also:leaven through the worship of the church. . In the See also:West, where philosophical efforts of any kind had been very rare since the 2nd century, and where mystical contemplation did not meet with the necessary conditions, Neoplatonism found a congenial soil only in isolated individuals. C. See also:Marius See also:Victorinus (q.v.) translated certain works of Plotinus, and thus had a decisive influence on the spiritual history of Augustine (Confess. vii. g, viii. 2). It may be said that. Neoplatonism influenced the West only through the See also:medium of the church theology, or, in some instances, under that disguise. Even See also:Boetius (it may now be considered certain) was a catholic Christian, although his whole mode of thought was certainly Neoplatonic (see BoETms). His violent death in the year 525 marks the end of independent philosophy in the West. But indeed this last of the See also:Roman philosophers stood quite alone in his century, and the philosophy for which he lived was neither original, nor well-grounded, nor methodically dedeloped. Neoplatonism and the Theology of the Church.—The question as to the influence of Neoplatonism on the development of Christianity is not easily answered, because it is scarcely possible to get a complete view of their mutual relations. The See also:answer will depend, in the first instance, upon how much is included under the See also:term " Neoplatonism." If Neoplatonism is understood in the widest sense, as the highest and fittest expression of the religious movements at work in the Graeco-Roman empire from the 2nd to the 5th century, then it may be regarded as the twin-See also:sister of the church dogmatic which grew up during the same period; the younger sister was brought up by the See also:elder, then rebelled against her and at last tyrannized over her. The Neoplatonists themselves characterized the theologians of the church as intruders, who had appropriated the Greek philosophy and sit by the admixture of See also:strange fables. Thus Porphyry says of See also:Origen (Euseb. H.E. vi. 19), "'The See also:outer life of Origen was that of a Christian and contrary to law; but, as far as his views of things and of God are concerned, he thought like the Greeks, whose conceptions he overlaid with See also:foreign myths." This See also:verdict of Porphyry's is at all events more just and See also:apt than that of the theologians on the Greek philosophers, when they accused them of having borrowed all their really valuable doctrines from the ancient Christian books. But the important point is that the relationship was acknowledged on both sides. Now, in so far as both Neoplatonism and the church dogmatic set out from the felt need of redemption, in so far as both sought to deliver the soul from sensuality and recognized man's inability without divine aid—without a See also:revelation—to attain salvation and a sure knowledge of the truth, they are at once most intimately related and at the same timetianity began to project a theology it was already deeply impregnated by Hellenic influences. But the influence is, to be traced not so much to philosophy as to the general culture of the time, and the whole set of conditions under which spiritual life was manifested. When Neoplatonism appeared, the Christian church had already laid down the main positions of her theology; or if not, she worked them out alongside of Neoplatonism—that is not a mere See also:accident—but still independently. It was only by identifying itself with the whole history of Greek philosophy, or by figuring as pure See also:Platonism restored, that Neoplatonism could stigmatize the church theology of Alexandria as a See also:plagiarism from itself. These assumptions, how-ever, were fanciful. Although our See also:sources are unfortunately very imperfect, the theology of the church does not appear to have learned much from Neoplatonism in the 3rd century—partly because the latter had not yet reached the form in which its doctrines could be accepted by the church dogmatic, and partly because theology was otherwise occupied. Her first business was to plant herself firmly on her own territory, to make good her position and clear away old and objectionable opinions. Origen was quite as independent a thinker as Plotinus; only, they both drew on the same tradition. From the 4th century downwards, however, the influence of Neoplatonism on the Oriental theologians was of the utmost importance. The church gradually expressed her most See also:peculiar convictions in dogmas, which were formulated by philosophical methods, but were irreconcilable with Neoplatonism (the Christological dogmas); and the further this process went the more unrestrainedly did theologians resign themselves to the influence of Neoplatonism on all other questions. The doctrines of the incarnation, the resurrection of the flesh and the creation of the world in time marked the boundary line between the church's dogmatic and Neoplatonism ; in every other respect, theologians and Neoplatonists drew so closely together that many of them are completely at one. In fact, there were See also:special cases, like that of Synesius, in which a speculative reconstruction of distinctively Christian doctrines by Christian men was winked at. If a See also:book does not happen to touch on any of the above-mentioned doctrines, it may often be doubtful whether the writer is a Christian or a Neoplatonist. In ethical precepts, in directions for right living (that is, asceticism), the two systems approximate more and more closely. But it was here that Neoplatonism finally celebrated its greatest See also:triumph. It indoctrinated the church with all its mysticism, its mystic exercises and even its magical cultus as taught by Iamblichus. The works of the pseudo-Dionysius contain a gnosis in which, by means of the teaching of lamblichus and Proclus, the church's theology is turned into a scholastic mysticism with directions on matters of practice and See also:ritual. And as these writings were attributed to Dionysius, the disciple of the apostles, the scholastic mysticism which they unfold was regarded as an apostolic, not to say a divine, See also:science. The influence exercised by these writings, first on the East, and then—after the 9th (or 12th) century—on the West, cannot be overestimated. It is impossible to enlarge upon it here; suffice it to say that the mystical and pietistic devotion of our own day, even in the See also:Protestant churches, is nourished on works whose ancestry can be traced, through a series of intermediate links, to the writings of the pseudo-Areopagite. In the ancient world there was only one Western theologian who came directly under the influence of Neoplatonism; but that one is Augustine, the most important of them all. It was through Neoplatonism that Augustine got rid of See also:scepticism and the last dregs of See also:Manichaeism. In the seventh book of his Confessions he has recorded how much he owed to the perusal of Neoplatonic works. On all the See also:cardinal doctrines—God, matter, the relation of God to the world, freedom and evil—Augustine retained the impress of Neoplatonist; at the same time he is the theologian of antiquity who most clearly perceived and most fully stated wherein Neoplatonism and Christianity differ. The best ever written by any church See also:father on this subject is to be found in chaps. ix.-xxi. of the seventh book of the Confessions. Why Neoplatonism succumbed in the conflict with Christianity is a question which the historians have never satisfactorily answered. As a See also:rule, the problem is not even stated correctly. We have nothing to do here with our own private ideal of Christianity, but solely with catholic Christianity and catholic theology. These are the forces that conquered Neoplatonism, after assimilating nearly everything that it contained. Further, we must consider the See also:arena in which the victory was won. The battlefield was the empire of See also:Constantine and Theodosius. It is only when these and all other circumstances of the See also:case are duly realized that we have a right to inquire how much the essential doctrines of Christianity contributed to the victory, and what share must be assigned to the organization of the church. In medieval theology and philosophy mysticism appears as the powerful opponent of rationalistic dogmatism. The empirical science of the See also:Renaissance and the two following centuries was itself a new development of Platonism and Neoplatonism, as opposed to rationalistic dogmatism, with its contempt for experience. Magic, See also:astrology and See also:alchemy—all the outgrowth of Neoplatonism—gave the first effectual stimulus to the observation of nature, and consequently to natural science, and in this way finally extinguished barren See also:rationalism. Thus in the history of science Neoplatonism has played a part and rendered set-vices of which Plotinus or Iamblichus or Proclus never dreamt. So true is it that sober history is often stranger and more capricious than all the marvels of See also:legend and See also:romance. articles. (A. HA.; J. M. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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