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See also:BERNSTORFF, ANDREAS See also:- PETER
- PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
- PETER (PEDRO)
- PETER, EPISTLES OF
- PETER, ST
PETER, See also:COUNT VON (1735–1797) , Danish statesman, was See also:born at See also:Hanover on the 28th of See also:August 173 5. His career was determined by his See also:uncle, Johann Hartwig See also:Ernst Bernstorff, who See also:early discerned the talents of his See also:nephew and induced him to study in the See also:German and Swiss See also:universities and travel for some years in See also:Italy, See also:France, See also:England and See also:- HOLLAND
- HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
- HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
- HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
- HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
- HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
- HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
- HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
- HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
- HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART
Holland, to prepare himself for a statesman's career. During these Wanderjahre he made the acquaintance of the poets See also:Gellert and See also:Jacobi, the learned See also:Jean-Jacques See also:Barthelemy, the duc de See also:Choiseul, and Gottfried See also:Achenwall, the statistician. At his uncle's See also:desire he rejected the Hanoverian for the Danish service, and in 1759 took his seat in the German See also:chancery at See also:Copenhagen. In 1767, at the same See also:- TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
- TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
- TIME, STANDARD
time as his uncle, he was created a count, and in 1769 was made a privy-councillor. He is described at this See also:period as intellectual, upright and absolutely trustworthy, but obstinate and self-opinionated to the highest degree, arguing with antiquaries about coins, with equerries about horses, and with foreigners about their own countries, always certain that he was right and they wrong, whatever the discussion might be. He shared the disgrace of his uncle when See also:Struensee came into See also:power, but re-entered the Danish service after Struensee's fall at the end of 1772, working at first in the See also:financial and economical departments, and taking an especial See also:interest in See also:agriculture. The improvements he introduced in the tenures of his peasantry anticipated in some respects the agricultural reforms of the next See also:generation.
In See also:April 1773 Bernstorff was transferred to the position for which he was especially fitted, the See also:ministry of See also:foreign affairs, with which he combined the See also:presidency of the German chancery (for See also:Schleswig-See also:Holstein). His predecessor, Adolf Siegfried Osten, had been dismissed because he was not persona grata at St See also:Petersburg, and Bernstorff's first See also:official See also:act was to conclude the negotiations which had See also:long been pending with the See also:grand-See also:duke See also:Paul as duke of Holstein-Gottorp. The result was the See also:exchange-treaty of the 1st of See also:June (May 21 O.S.) 1773, confirming the previous treaty of 1767 (see BERNSTORFF, J. H. E.). This was followed by the treaty of See also:alliance between See also:Denmark and See also:Russia of the 12th of August 1773, which was partly a mutually defensive See also:league, and partly an engagement between the two states to upset the new constitution recently established in See also:Sweden by Gustavus III., when the right moment for doing so should arrive. For this mischievous and immoral alliance, which See also:bound Denmark to the wheels of the See also:Russian empress's See also:chariot and sought to interfere in the See also:internal affairs of a neighbouring See also:state, Bernstorff was scarcely responsible, for the preliminaries had been definitely settled in his uncle's time and he merely concluded them. But there can be no doubt that he regarded this See also:anti-See also:Swedish policy as the correct one for Denmark, especially with a monarch like Gustavus III. on the Swedish See also:throne. It is also See also:pretty certain that the anti-Swedish alliance was Russia's See also:price for compounding the Gottorp difficulty.
Starting from the See also:hypothesis that Sweden was " Denmark-See also:Norway's most active and irreconcilable enemy," Bernstorff logically included France, the See also:secular ally of Sweden, among the hostile See also:powers with whom an alliance was to be avoided, and See also:drew near to See also:Great See also:Britain as the natural foe of France, especially during the See also:American See also:War of See also:Independence, and this too despite the irritation occasioned in Denmark-Norway by Great Britain's masterful See also:- INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)
interpretation of the expression " See also:contraband." Bernstorff's sympathy with England See also:grew stronger still when in 1779 See also:Spain joined her enemies; and he was much inclined, the same See also:winter, to join a triple alliance between Great Britain, Russia and Denmark-Norway, proposed by England for the purpose of compelling the See also:Bourbon powers to accept reasonable terms of See also:peace. But he was overruled by the See also:crown See also:prince See also:Frederick, who thought such a policy too hazardous, when Russia declined to have anything to do with it. Instead of this the Russian See also:chancellor Nikita See also:Panin proposed an armed league to embrace all the neutral powers, for the purpose of protecting neutral See also:shipping in time of war. This league was very similar to one proposed by Bernstorff himself in See also:September 1778 for enforcing the principle " a See also:free See also:ship makes the See also:cargo free ";but as now presented by Russia, he rightly regarded it as directed exclusively against England. He acceded to it indeed (9th of See also:July 1780) because he could not help doing so; but he had previously, by a See also:separate treaty with England, on the 4th of July, come to an understanding with that power as to the meaning of the expression " contraband of war. " This independence caused great wrath at St Petersburg, where Bernstorff was accused of disloyalty, and ultimately sacrificed to the resentment of the Russian See also:government (13th of See also:November 1780), the more readily as he already disagreed on many important points of domestic See also:administration with the See also:prime See also:minister Hoegh Guldberg. He retired to his See also:Mecklenburg estates, but on the fall of Guldberg four years later, was recalled to See also:- OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")
office (April 1784). The ensuing thirteen years were perhaps the best days of the old Danish See also:absolutism. The government, under the direction of such enlightened ministers as Bernstorff, See also:Reventlow and others, held the mean between Struensee's extravagant cosmopolitanism and Guldberg's stiff conservatism. In such See also:noble projects of reform as the emancipation of the See also:serfs (see REVENTLOW) Bernstorff took a leading See also:part, and so closely did he See also:associate himself with everything Danish, so popular did he become in the Danish See also:capital, that a Swedish diplomatist expressed the See also:opinion that henceforth Bernstorff could not be removed without danger. Liberal-minded as he was, he held that " the will of the nation should be a See also:law to the See also:- KING
- KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
- KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
- KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
- KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
- KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
- KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
- KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
- KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
- KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
- KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
- KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)
king," and he boldly upheld the freedom of the See also:press as the surest of safety-valves.
Meanwhile foreign complications were again endangering the position of Denmark-Norway. As Bernstorff had predicted, Panin's See also:neutrality project had resulted in a See also:breach between Great Britain and Russia. Then came Gustavus III.'s sudden war with Russia in 1788. Bernstorff was bound by treaty to assist Russia in such a contingency, but he took care that the assistance so rendered should be as trifling as possible, to avoid offending Great Britain and See also:Prussia. Still more menacing became the See also:political situation on the outbreak of the See also:French Revolution. See also:Ill-disposed as Bernstorff was towards the See also:Jacobins, he now condemned on principle any interference in the domestic affairs of France, and he was persuaded that Denmark's safest policy was to keep clear of every anti-French See also:coalition. From this unassailable standpoint he never swerved, despite the promises and even the menaces both of the eastern and the western powers. He was rewarded with See also:complete success and the respect of all the diplomatists in See also:Europe. His neutrality treaty with Sweden (17th of See also:March 1794), for protecting their merchantmen by combined squadrons, was also extremely beneficial to the Scandinavian powers, both commercialiy and politically. Taught by the See also:lesson of See also:Poland, he had, in fact, long since abandoned his former policy of weakening Sweden. Bernstorff's great faculties appeared, indeed, to mature and increase with See also:age, and his See also:death, on the 21st of June 1797, was regarded in Denmark as a See also:national calamity.
Count Bernstorff was twice married, his wives being the two sisters of the writers See also:Counts See also:Christian and See also:Friedrich See also:Leopold zu See also:Stolberg. He See also:left seven sons and three daughters. Of his sons the best known is Christian See also:Gunther, count von Bernstorff. Another, Count See also:Joachim, was attached to his See also:brother's fortunes so long as he remained in the Danish service, was associated with him in representing Denmark at the See also:congress of See also:Vienna, and in 1815 was appointed See also:ambassador at that See also:court.
See Rasmus Nyerup, Bernstorffs Eftermaele (Kjobenhavn, 1799); Peter See also:Edward Holm, Danmark-Norges udenrigske Historie (Copenhagen, 1875); Danmarks Riges Historie V. (Copenhagen, 1897—1905) ; Christian See also:Ulrich Detlev von Eggers, Denkwiirdigskeiten See also:axis dem Leben See also:des Grafen A. P. Bernstorff (Copenhagen, 'Soo); Aage Frus, A. P. Bernstorff og 0. Hoegh-Guldberg (Copenhagen, 1899) ; and Bernstorfferne og Danmark (Copenhagen, 1903). (R. N.
End of Article: BERNSTORFF, ANDREAS PETER, COUNT VON (1735–1797)
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