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Brooklyn, also on Long Island, were in successful operation when the abundant pioduction of petroleum, which immediately followed the completion of the Drake well, placed at the disposal of the refiner a material which cculd be worked more profitably than bituminous shale. The existing refineries were accordingly altered so as to adapt them for the refining of petroleum; but in the manufacture of burning oil from petroleum the small stills which had been in use in the See also:

DISTILLATION (from the Lat. distillare, more correctly destillare, to drop or trickle down)

distillation of shale-oil were at first employed. In the earlier refineries the stills, the capacity of which varied from 25 to 8o barrels, usually consisted of a See also:

VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point)

vertical See also:

CYLINDER (Gr. KvAwSpos, from KvXivaety, to roll)

cylinder, constructed of See also:

CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast- or wrought-See also:

IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron, with a See also:

BOILER

boiler-See also:

PLATE

plate bottom and a cast-iron See also:

DOME (Lat domus, house; Ital. duomo, cathedral)

dome, on which the '' See also:

goose-See also:

NECK (O. Eng. hnecca; the word appears in many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch ride, Ger. Nacken; in O. E. the common word was heals; cf. Ger. Hals)

neck " was bolted. The See also:

charge was distilled almost tc dryness, though the operation was not carried far enough to cause the See also:

RESIDUE (through the French, from the Lat. residuum, a remainder, from residere, to remain)

residue to " See also:

coke." The operation was, however, completely revolutionized in the United States by the introduction of the " cracking See also:

PROCESS

process," and by the See also:

DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of the distillation into two parts, one consisting in the removal of the more volatile constituents of the oil, and the other in the distillation (which is usually conducted in See also:

SEPARATE

separate stills) of the residues from the first distillation, for the pioduction of lubricating See also:

OILS (adopted from the Fr. oile, mod. huile, Lat. oleum, olive oil)

oils and See also:

PARAFFIN

paraffin. Various arrangements have been proposed and patented for the continuous distillation of petroleum, in which crude oil is supplied to a range of stills a;, fast as the distillates pass off. The See also:

SYSTEM

system is largely employed in See also:

Russia, and its use has been frequently attempted in the United States, but the results have not been satisfactory, on See also:

account, it is said, of the much greater quantity of dissolved See also:

gas contained in the See also:

AMERICAN

American oil, the larger proportion of kerosene which such oil yields, and the less fluid See also:

CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the residue.

In the United States a See also:

HORIZONTAL

horizontal cylindrical still is usually employed in the distillation of the spirit and kerosene, but what is known as the " See also:

CHEESE (Lat. caseus)

cheese-See also:

box " still has also been largely used. American stills of the former type are constructed of wrought-iron or See also:

STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (1847– )

steel, and are about 30 ft. in length by 12 ft. 6 in. in See also:

DIAMETER (from the Cr. &a, through, µErpov, measure)

diameter, with a dome about 3 ft. in diameter, furnished with a vapour-See also:

PIPE

pipe 15 in. in diameter The charge for such a still is about 600 barrels. The stills were formerly completely bricked in, so that the vapours should be kept fully heated until they escaped to the See also:

CONDENSER

condenser, but since the introduction of the " cracking process," the upper See also:

PART

part has usually been See also:

LEFT

left exposed to the See also:

air. The cheese-box still has a vertical cylindrical See also:

BODY

body, which may be as much as 30 ft. in diameter and 9 ft. in See also:

DEPTH

depth, connected by means of three vertical pipes with a vapour-See also:

CHEST (Gr. Kiarl, Lat. cista, O. Eng. cist, test, &c.)

chest furnished with a large number, frequently as many as See also:

FORTY

forty, of 3-in. See also:

DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge-pipes arranged in parallel lines. The stills employed in Russia and See also:

Galicia are usually smaller than those already described. The " cracking " process, whereby a considerable quantity of the oil which is intermediate between kerosene and lubricating oil is converted into See also:

HYDROCARBONS

hydrocarbons of See also:

LOWER

lower specific gravity and boiling-point suitable for See also:

ILLUMINATING

illuminating purposes, is one of See also:

GREAT

great scientific and technical See also:

INTEREST

interest. It is generally understood that the products of fractional distillation, even in the laboratory, are not identical with the hydrocarbons See also:

PRESENT

present in the crude oil, but are in part produced by the See also:

ACTION

action of See also:

HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat upon them. This was plainly stated by See also:

PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Professor Silliman in the earliest stages of development of the American petroleum industry. An important See also:

paper bearing on the subject was published in 1871, by T. E. See also:

Thorpe and J.

See also:

Young, as a preliminary See also:

note on their experiments on the action of heat under pressure on solid paraffin. They found that the paraffin was thus converted, with the See also:

EVOLUTION

evolution of but little gas, into hydrocarbons which were liquid at See also:

ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary temperatures. In an experiment on 3500 grams of paraffin produced from shale (melting point 44'5° C.) they obtained nearly 4 litres of liquid hydro-carbons, which they subjected to fractional distillation, and on examining the fraction distilling below 100° C., they found it to consist mainly of olefines. The See also:

HYDROCARBON

hydrocarbon C20H42, for example, might be resolved into C5H12+C15H3o, or CEH19+C14Hts, or C7H16+C13H26, &c., the See also:

general See also:

EQUATION (from Lat. aequatio, aequare, to equalize)

equation of the decomposition being C„H2a+2 (paraffin)=C,.5H2(,.-p)+2 (paraffin)+CpH2p (See also:

OLEFINE

olefine). The product actually obtained is a mixture of several paraffins and several olefines. The cracking process practically consists in distilling the oils at a temperature higher than the normal boiling point of the constituents which it is desired to decompose. This may be brought about by a distillation under pressure, or by allowing the condensed distillate to fall into the highly heated residue in the still. The result of this treatment is that the comparatively heavy oils 3E undergo See also:

DISSOCIATION

dissociation, as shown by the experiments of Thorpe and Young, into specifically lighter hydrocarbons of lower boiling points, and the yield of kerosene from ordinary crude petroleum may thus be greatly increased. A large number of arrangements for carrying out the cracking process have been proposed and patented, probably the earliest directly bearing on the subject being that of See also:

James Young, who in 1865 patented his " Improvements in treating hydrocarbon oils." In this patent, the distillation is described as being conducted in a See also:

VESSEL (O. Fr. vaissel, from a rare Lat. vascellum, dim. of vas, vase, urn)

vessel having a loaded See also:

VALVE (Lat. valva, a leaf of a double or folding door, allied to volvere, to roll, as of a door on its hinges)

valve or a partially closed stop-See also:

COCK, EDWARD (1805-1892)

cock, through which the confined vapour escapes under any desired pressure. Under such conditions, distillation takes See also:

PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place at higher temperatures than the normal boiling-points of the constituent hydrocarbons of the oil, and a partial cracking results. The process patented by See also:

DEWAR, SIR JAMES (1842- )

Dewar and Redwood in 1889 consists in the use of a suitable still and condenser in See also:

FREE

free communication with each other—i.e. without any valve between them—the space in the still and condenser not occupied by liquid being charged with air, See also:

CARBON (symbol C, atomic weight 12)

carbon dioxide or other gas, under the required pressure, and the condenser being provided with a regulated outlet for condensed liquid. An objectionable feature of the system of allowing the vapour to See also:

ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape from the still to the condenser through a loaded valve, viz: the irregularity of the distillation, is thus removed, and the benefits of See also:

REGULAR

regular See also:

VAPORIZATION

vaporization and condensation under high pressure are obtained.

In the American petroleum refineries it is found that sufficient cracking can be produced by slow distillation in stills of which the upper part is sufficiently cool to allow of the condensation of the vapours of the less volatile hydrocarbons, the condensed liquid thus falling back into the heated body of oil. In the earlier stages of the development of the manufacture of See also:

MINERAL

mineral lubricating oils, the residues were distilled in cast-iron stills, and the lubricating properties of the products thus obtained were injured by overheating. The See also:

MODERN

modern practice is to employ horizontal cylindrical wrought-iron or steel stills, and to introduce See also:

steam into the oil. The steam is superheated and may thus be heated to any desired temperature without increase of pressure, which would be liable to damage the still. The steam operates by carrying the vapours away to the condenser as fast as they are generated, the injury to the products resulting from their remaining in contact with the highly-heated See also:

SURFACE

surface of the still being thus prevented. In See also:

order to separate the distillate into various fractions, and to remove as much of it as possible free from condensed steam, it is now usual to employ condensing appliances of See also:

SPECIAL

special See also:

FORM (Lat. forma)

form with outlets for See also:

RUNNING

running off the different fractions. The process of distillation of lubricating oils under reduced atmospheric pressure is now in very general use, especially for obtaining the heavier products. The vapours from the still pass through a condenser into a See also:

RECEIVER

receiver, which is in communication with the exhauster. The products obtained by the distillation of petroleum are not in a marketable See also:

CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition, but require chemical treatment to remove See also:

ACID (from the Lat. root ac-, sharp; acere, to be sour)

acid and other bodies which impart a dark See also:

COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour as well as an unpleasant odour to the liquid, and in the See also:

case of See also:

LAMP (from Gr. Xag ras, a torch, Xaµaav, to shine)

lamp-oils, reduce the See also:

POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of rising in the See also:

WICK

wick by capillary attraction. At the inception of the industry kerosene came into the See also:

MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market as a dark yellow or reddish-coloured liquid, and in the first instance, the removal of colour was attempted by treatment with soda See also:

LYE (0. Eng. leag, cf. Dutch loog, Ger. Lauge, from the root meaning to wash, see in Lat. lavare, and Eng. " lather," froth of soap and water, and " laundry ")

lye and See also:

lime See also:

SOLUTION (from Lat. solvere, to loosen, dissolve)

solution. It was, however, found that after the oil so purified had been burned in a lamp, for a See also:

SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short See also:

time, the wick became encrusted, and the oil failed to rise properly. Eichler, of See also:

BAKU

Baku, is stated to have been the first to introduce, in Russia, the use of sulphuric acid, followed by that of soda lye, and his process is in universal use at the present time.

The rationale of this treatment is not fully understood, but the action appears to consist in the separation or decomposition of the aromatic hydrocarbons, fatty and other acids, phenols, tarry bodies, &c., which lower the quality of the oil, the sulphuric acid removing some, while the See also:

CAUSTIC (Gr. rcavvraubs, burning)

caustic soda takes out the See also:

REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder, and neutralizes the acid which has been left in the oil. This treatment with acid and See also:

ALKALI

alkali is usually effected by agitation with compressed air. Oils which contain See also:

SULPHUR

sulphur-compounds are subjected to a special process of refining in which cupric See also:

OXIDE

oxide or litharge is employed as a desuiphurizing See also:

AGENT (from Lat. agere, to act)

agent. Testing.—A large number of See also:

PHYSICAL

physical and chemical tests are applied both to crude petroleum and to the products manufactured therefrom. The industry is conducted upon a basis of recognized See also:

STANDARDS

standards of quality, and testing is necessary in the interests of both refiner and consumer, as well as compulsory in connexion with the various statutory and municipal regulations. In the routine examination of crude petroleum it is customary to determine the specific gravity, and the amount of See also:

WATER

water and earthy See also:

MATTER

matter in suspension; the oil is also frequently subjected to a process of fractional distillation in order to ascertain whether there has been any addition of distilled products or residue. Petroleum spirit is tested for specific gravity, range of boiling-points, and results of fractional distillation. To illuminating oil or kerosene a See also:

SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of tests is applied in order that the colour, odour, specific gravity and flash-point or See also:

FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire-test may be recorded. In the testing of mineral lubricating oils the viscosity, flash-point," See also:

COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold-test," and specific gravity are the characters of See also:

CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief importance. See also:

FUEL (O. Fr. feuaile, popular Lat. focalia, from focus, hearth, fire)

Fuel oil is submitted to certain of the foregoing tests and in addition the calorimetric value is determined. Paraffin See also:

wax is tested for melting-point (or setting-point), and the semi-refined product is further examined to ascertain the percentage of oil, water and dirt present. • In civilized countries See also:

PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision is made by See also:

law for the testing of the flash-point or fire-test of lamp-oil (illuminating oil or kerosene), the method of testing and the minimum limit of flash-point or fire-test being prescribed (see below, Legislation).

The earliest form of testing See also:

INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument employed for this purpose was that of Giuseppe Tagliabue of New See also:

York, which consists of a See also:

glass See also:

CUP (in O.E. cuppe; generally taken to be from Late Lat. cuppa, a variant of Lat. cupa, a cask, cf. Gr. KuaeXXov)

cup placed in a See also:

COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper water See also:

bath heated by a spirit lamp. The cup is filled with the oil to be tested, a thermometer placed in it and heat applied, the temperatures being noted at which, on passing a lighted splinter of See also:

wood over the surface of the oil, a flash occurs, and after further See also:

HEATING

heating, the oil ignites. The first temperature is known as the flash-point, the second as the " fire-test." Such an apparatus, in which the oil-cup is uncovered, is known as an open-test instrument. In Saybolt's Electric See also:

TESTER (Fr, teetiere, head-covering, from teete)

Tester (1879) ignition is effected by a spark from an See also:

INDUCTION (from Lat. inducere, to lead into; cf. Gr. ilrayu yli)

induction-coil passing between See also:

PLATINUM [symbol Pt, atomic weight 145.0 (0=16)]

platinum points placed at a fixed distance above the oil. Before long, however, it was found that the open-cup tests (though they are employed in the United States and elsewhere at the present time) were often very untrustworthy. Accordingly Keates proposed the substitution of a closed cup in 1871, but his suggestions were not adopted. In 1875 See also:

Sir See also:

Frederick See also:

Abel, at the See also:

REQUEST, LETTERS OF

request of the See also:

BRITISH

British See also:

Government, began to investigate the matter, and in See also:

AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August 1879 the " Abel test " was legalized. This apparatus has an oil-cup consisting of a cylindrical See also:

brass or See also:

gun-See also:

metal vessel, the See also:

COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover of which is provided with three rectangular holes which may be closed and opened by means of a perforated slide moving in grooves; the See also:

MOVEMENT

movement of the slide causes a small oscillating colza- or See also:

rape-oil lamp to be tilted so that the See also:

FLAME (Lat. flamma; the root flag- appears in flagrare, to burn, blaze, and Gr. d, XEryew)

flame (of specified See also:

SIZE

size) is brought just below the surface of the lid. The oil-cup is supported in a bath or heating-vessel, consisting of two See also:

FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat-bottomed copper cylinders, to contain water, heated by a spirit lamp, and provided with an air-space between the water-vessel and the oil-cup. Thermometers are placed in both oil-cup and water-bath, the temperature of the latter being raised to 1300 at the commencement of the test, while the oil is put in at about 6o° F. Testing is begun when the temperature reaches 66° by slowly See also:

DRAWING

drawing the slide open and reclosing it, the See also:

SPEED, JOHN (1552–1629)

speed being regulated by the See also:

SWING, DAVID (1830-1894)

swing of a pendulum supplied with the instrument. It has been found that See also:

variations in barometric pressure affect the flash-point and accordingly corrections have to be made in obtaining strictly See also:

COMPARATIVE

comparative results at different pressures.

The Abel-Pensky instrument, used in See also:

India and in See also:

Germany, differs only in being provided with a clockwork arrangement for moving the slide. Numerous other forms of open-test and See also:

close-test See also:

INSTRUMENTS

instruments have from time to time been devised, some of which are in use in the United States and in other countries. It is still customary to determine the open flash-point and fire-test of lubricating oils, but the close flash-point is also usually ascertained, a modification of the Abel or Abel-Pensky apparatus, known as the Pensky-See also:

Martens, having been devised for the purpose. This instrument is so constructed that the higher temperature needed can be readily applied, and it is fitted with a stirrer to equalize the heating of the contents of the oil-cup. For the testing of the viscosity of lubricating oils the Boverton Redwood standardized viscometer is generally employed in Great See also:

BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain. By means of this instrument the time occupied in the flow of a measured quantity of the oil through a small orifice at a given temperature is measured. Uses.—Petroleum has very long been known as a source of See also:

LIGHT

light and heat, while the use of crude oil for the treatment of wounds and cutaneous affections, and as a lubricant, was even more general and led to the raw material being an See also:

ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article of See also:

commerce at a still earlier date. For pharmaceutical purposes crude petroleum is no longer generally used by civilized races, though the product See also:

VASELINE

vaseline is largely employed in this way, and emulsions of petroleum have been administered internally in various See also:

PECTORAL

pectoral complaints ; while the volatile product termed rhigolene has been largely used as a See also:

LOCAL

local anaesthetic. For illuminating purposes, the most extensively-used product is kerosene, but both the more and the less volatile portions of petroleum are employed in suitable lamps. Petroleum products are also largely utilized in gas manufacture for, (I) the See also:

PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of " air-gas," (2) the manufacture of oil-gas, and (3) the enrichment of coal-gas. For heating purposes, the stoves employed are practically kerosene lamps of suitable construction, though gasoline is used as a domestic fuel in the United States. The use of petroleum as liquid fuel is dealt with under FUEL, as is the employment of its products in See also:

MOTORS, ELECTRIC

motors, which has greatly int.: eased the demand for petroleum spirit.

Petroleum has largely superseded other oils, and is still gaining ground, as a lubricant for machinery and railway See also:

ROLLING

rolling-stock, either alone or in admixture with fixed oils. The more viscous descriptions of mineral oils have also been found suitable for use in the Elmore process of ore-concentration by oil. Legislation.—Since the inception of the petroleum industry, most civilized countries have prescribed by law a test of flash-point or inflammability, designed in most cases primarily to afford a See also:

DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to, describe)

definition of oils for See also:

LIGHTING

lighting purposes which may be safely stored without the See also:

ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption of special precautions. In the United See also:

KINGDOM

Kingdom the limit has, for the purpose in question, been fixed by the legislature at 73° F., by the " Abel-test," which is the See also:

EQUIVALENT

equivalent of the former See also:

standard of See also:

LOO (formerly called " Lanterloo," Fr. lanturlu, the refrain of a popular 17th-century song)

loo° F. by the " open-test." While the subject of the testing of petroleum for legislative purposes has been investigated in Great Britain by committees of both branches of the legislature, with a view to See also:

CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change in the law, the standard has never been raised, since such a course would tend to reduce the available supply and thus See also:

lead to increase in See also:

price or deterioration in quality. Moreover the chief See also:

OBJECT

object of the Petroleum Acts passed in the United Kingdom has hitherto been to regulate storage, and it has always been possible to obtain oils either of higher or lower flash-point, when such are preferred, irrespective of the legal standard, in addition to which it may be asserted that in a properly constructed lamp used with reasonable care the ordinary oil of commerce is a safe illuminant. The more See also:

RECENT

recent legislation with regard to " petroleum spirit " relates mainly to the quantity which may be stored for use on " light locomotives." The more important local authorities throughout the country have made regulations under the See also:

POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers conferred upon them by the Petroleum Acts, with the object of regulating the " keeping, See also:

sale, See also:

CONVEYANCE

conveyance and hawking " of petroleum products having a flash-point below 73° F., and the See also:

PORT

Port of See also:

LONDON

London authority, together with other water-way and See also:

HARBOUR (from M.E. hereberge, here, an army; cf. Ger. Heer and -beorg, protection or shelter. Other early forms in English were herberwe and haiborow, as seen in various place names, such as Market Harborough.. The French auberge, an inn, derived through

harbour authorities in the United Kingdom, have their own by-See also:

LAWS

laws See also:

RELATING

relating to the See also:

NAVIGATION (from Lat. navis, ship, and agere, to move)

navigation of vessels carrying such petroleum. In other countries the flash-point standards differ considerably, as do the storage regulations. In See also:

France, the standard is 350 C. (Granier tester, equivalent to 98° F.), and according to their flash-point, liquid hydrocarbons are divided into two classes (below and above 350 C.), considered differently in regard to quantities storable and other regulations. In Germ:.iy, the law prescribes a close-test of 21 ° C., equal to about 70° F., whilst in Russia the standard is 28° C., equal to 84.° F., by the close-test; in both these countries the weights of petroleum which may be stored in specified buildings are determined by law. In the United States, various methods of testing and various minimum standards have been adopted. In See also:

Pennsylvania, the prescribed limit is a " fire-test " of to° F., equivalent to about 70° F., close-test, while in the See also:

State of New York it is too° F., close-test.

See Sir Boverton Redwood's Petroleum and its Products (2nd ed., London, 1906) ; A. Beeby See also:

Thompson, Petroleum See also:

MINING

Mining (191o) ; L. C. Tassart, Exploitation du See also:

PAROLE (shortened from the Fr. parole d'honneur, word of honour)

Parole (1908) ; C. Engler and H. See also:

HOFER, ANDREAS (1767-181o)

Hofer, Das Erdol, 5 vols. (19o9 se ,.) ; A. B. Thompson, The Oil See also:

FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

Fields of Russia (1908) ; and J. D. See also:

Henry, Oil Fields of the See also:

EMPIRE

Empire (1910). B.

End of Article: XXT

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