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ACCUMULATOR
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ACCUMULATOR , the See also:term applied to a number of devices whose See also:function is to See also:store See also:energy in one See also:form or another, as, for example, the See also:hydraulic accumulator of See also:Lord See also:Armstrong (see See also:HYDRAULICS, § 179). In the See also:present See also:article the term is restricted to its use in electro-technology, in which it describes a See also:special type of See also:battery. The See also:ordinary voltaic See also:cell is made by bringing together certain chemicals, whose reaction maintains the electric currents taken from the cell. When exhausted, such cells can be restored by replacing the spent materials, by a fresh " See also:charge" of the See also:original substances. But in some cases it is not necessary to get rid of the spent materials, because they can be brought back to their original See also:state by forcing a See also:reverse current through the cell. The reverse current reverses the chemical See also:action and re-establishes the original conditions, thus enabling the cell to repeat its See also:electrical See also:work. Cells which can thus be " re-charged " by the action of a reverse current are called accumulators because they " accumulate " the chemical work of an electric current. An accumulator is also. known as a reversible battery," " storage battery " or " secondary battery." The last name See also:dates from the See also:early days of See also:electrolysis. When a liquid like sulphuric See also:acid was electrolysed for a moment with the aid of See also:platinum electrodes, it was found that the electrodes could themselves produce a current when detached from the See also:primary battery. Such a current was attributed to an " electric polarization " of the electrodes,, and was regarded as having a secondary nature, the implication being that the phenomenon was almost. See also:equivalent to a storage of See also:electricity. It is now known that the platinum electrodes stored, not electricity, but the products of electro-chemical decomposition. Hence if the two names, secondary and storage cells, are used, they are liable to be misunderstood unless the See also:interpretation now put on them be kept in mind. " Reversible battery "
is an excellent name for accumulators.
See also:Sir W. R. See also: Consequently, it remains fixed in the See also:place where it is formed; and, on the passage of the charging current, the original PbO2 and lead are reproduced in the places they originally occupied. Thus there is no material See also:change in the See also:distribution of masses of active material. Lastly, the active materials are in a porous, spongy See also:condition, so that the acid is within reach of all parts of them. Plante carefully studied the changes which occur in the formation, charge and discharge of the cell. In forming, he placed two sheets plante's of lead in sulphuric acid, separating them by narrow strips Pia of eaoutchouc (fig. I). When a charging current is saaa sent through the cell, the See also:hydrogen liberated at one See also:plate escapes, a small quantity possibly being spent in reducing the See also:sue- See also:face film of See also:oxide generally found on lead. Some of the See also:oxygen is always fixed on the other (See also:positive) plate, forming a'See also:surface film of peroxide. After a few minutes the current is reversed so that the first plate isperoxidized, and the peroxide previously formed on the second plate is reduced to metallic lead in a spongy state. By repeated reversals, the surface of each• plate is alternately . peroxidized and reduced to metallic lead. In successive oxidations, the action pene- tratesfarther into the plate, furnishing each time a larger quantity of spongy. PbO2 on one plate and of spongy lead on the other. It follows that the duration of the successive charging currents also in- creases. At the beginning, a few, minutes suffice; at theme-- end, many See also:hours are required. After the first six or eight FIG. I. cycles, Plante allowed a See also:period of repose before See also:reversing. He claimed that tole PbO2 formed by reversal after repose was more strongly adherent, and also more crystalline than if no repose were allowed. The following figures show the relative amounts of oxygen absorbed by a given plate in successive charges (between one charge and the next the plate stood in repose for the time stated, then was reduced, and again charged as anode) : and so on for many days (See also:Gladstone and Tribe, See also:Chemistry of Secondary Batteries). Seeing that each plate is in turn oxidized and thea reduced, itis evident that the spongy lead will increase at the same See also:rate on the other plate of the cell. The See also:process of " forming " thus briefly described was not continued indefinitely, but only' till a See also:fair proportion of the thickness of the plates was converted into the spongy material, PhO2 and Pb respectively. After this, reversal was not permitted, the cell being put into use and always charged in a given direction. If the process of forming by reversal be continued, the positive plate is ultimately all converted into PbO2 and falls to pieces. Plante made excellent cells by this method, yet three objections were urged against them. They required too much time to " form "; the spongy masses (PbO2 more especially) See also:fell off for want of See also:mechanical support, and the separating strips of caoutchouc were not likely to have a long See also:life. The first advance was made by C. A. See also:Faure (1881), who greatly See also:short- ened the time required for " forming " by giving the plates a preliminary coating of red lead, whereby the slow process of biting into the See also:metal was avoided. At the first charging, the red lead on the + electrode is changed to PbO2, while 'I that on the — electrode is reduced to spongy lead. Thus one continuous operation, lasting perhaps sixty hours, takes the place of many reversals, which, with periods of repose, last as much as three months. Faure used See also:felt as a separating membrane, but its use was soon abolished by methods of construction FIG. 2.—Tudor positive plate. due to E. Volckmar, J. S, Sellon, J. W. See also:Swan and others. These inventors put the See also:paste not on to plates of lead, but into the holes of a grid, which, when carefully designed, affords See also:good mechanical support to the spongy masses, and does away with the See also:necessity for felt, &c. They are more satisfactory, however, as supporters of spongy lead than of the peroxide, since at the point of contact in the latter See also:case the acid gives rise to a See also:local action, which slowly destroys the grid. ' Disintegration follows sooner or later, though the best makers are able to defer the failure for a fairly long time. Efforts have been made by A. Tribe, D. G. See also:Fitzgerald and others to dispense with a supporting grid for the positive plate, but these attempts have. not yet been successful enough to enable them to See also:Separate Periods of Charge. Relative Amount of Repose. Peroxide formed. 18 hours First o 2 days Second 1.57 4 Third 1.71 2 " See also:Fourth 2.1.4 Fifth 2.43 11IMIMUllu roMn 1= y i,a See also:ea r I as compete with the other forms. For many years the See also:battle between the " Plante " type and the Faure or " pasted " type has been one in which the issue was doubtful, but the See also:general tendency is towards a mixed type at the present time. There are many good cells, the value of all resting on the care exercised during the manufacture and also in the choice of pure materials. Increasing emphasis is laid on the purity of the See also:water used to replace that lost by evaporation, distilled water generally being specified. The following descriptions will give a good See also:idea of modern practice. The " chloride cell " has a Plante positive with a pasted negative. For the positive a lead casting is made, about o•4 See also:inch thick pierced by a number of circular holes about Chloride See also:half an inch in See also:diameter. Into each of these holes cell. is thrust a See also:roll or rosette of lead ribbon, which has been cut to the right breadth (equal to the thickness of the plate), then ribbed or gimped, and finally coiled into a rosette. The rosettes have sufficient See also:spring to See also:fix themselves in the holes of the lead plate, but are keyed in position by a hydraulic See also:press. The plates are then " formed " by passing a current for a long time. In a later See also:pattern a See also:kind of discontinuous See also:longitudinal See also:rib is put in the ribbon, and increases the capacity and life by strengthening the See also:mass without interfering with the See also:diffusion of acid. The negative plate was formerly obtained by reducing pastilles of lead chloride, but by a later mode of construction it is made by casting a grid with thin See also:vertical ribs, connected horizontally by small bars of triangular See also:section. The bars on the two faces are " staggered, " that is, those on one face are not opposite those on the other. The grid is pasted with a lead oxide paste and afterwards reduced; this is known as the " exide " negative. The larger sizes of negative plate are of a " See also:box " type, formed by riveting together two grids and filling the intervening space n4 with paste. A feature of the " chloride " cells is the use of separators made of thin sheets of specially prepared See also:wood. These prevent short circuits arising from scales of active material or from the 'formation of " trees " of lead which sometimes grow across in certain forms of battery. The Tudor cell has positives formed of lead plates See also:cast in one piece with a large surface of thin vertical ribs, intersected at Tudor ce//. intervals by See also:horizontal ribs to give the plates strength to withstand buckling in both directions (fig. 2). The thickness of the plates is about 0•4 inch, and the See also:developed surface is about eight times that of a smooth plate of the same See also:size. A thoroughly adherent and homogeneous coating of peroxide of lead is formed on this large surface by an improved Plante process. The negative plate (fig. 3) is composed of two grids riveted together to form a shallow box; the See also:outer surfaces are smooth sheets pierced with many small holes. The space between them is intersected by ribs and pasted (before riveting). Many of the E.P.S. cells, made by the Electrical Power Storage See also:Company, are of the Faure or pasted type, but the Plante formation is used for the positives of two kinds of cell. The paste for the positive plates is a mixture of red lead with sulphuric acid; for the negative plates, litharge is substituted for red lead. See also:Figs. 4 and 5 roughly represent the grids employed for the negative and positive plates respectively of a type used for See also:lighting. Fig. 6 is the See also:cross section of the casting used for the Plante positive of the larger cells for rapid discharge. Finer indentations on the See also:side expose a large surface. Fig. 7 shows a See also:complete cell. The See also:Hart cell, as used for lighting, is a See also:combination of the Plante and Faure (pasted) types. The plates hang by side lugs on See also:glass slats, and are separated by three rows of glass tubes Hart celL s inch dia__ieter (fig. 8). The tubes See also:rest in grooved See also:teak wood blocks placed at the bottom of the glass boxes. The blocks also serve as See also:base for a See also:skeleton framework of the same material which surrounds and supports the section. Of course the wood has to be specially treated to withstand the acid. A special non-corrosive terminal is used. A coned See also:bolt draws the See also:lug ends of adjacent cells together, fitting in a corresponding tapered hole in the lugs, and thus increasing the contact See also:area. The positive and negative tapers being different, a cell cannot be connected up in the wrong way. In See also:America, in addition to some of the cells already described, there are types which are not found in See also:England. Two See also:Gould cell. may be described. The Gould cell is of the Plante type. A special effort is made to reduce local and other deleterious action by starting with perfectly homogeneous plates. They are formed from See also:sheet lead blanks by suitable See also:machines, which gradually raise the surface into a See also:series of ribs and grooves. The sides and See also:middle of the See also:blank are See also:left untouched and amply suffice to distribute the current over the surface of the plate. The grooves are very See also:fine, and when the active material is formed in them by electro-chemical action, they hold it very securely. The See also:Hatch cell has its positive enclosed in an envelope. A very shallow porous See also:tray (made of See also:kaolin and See also:silica) is filled with B.P.S. cell. red lead paste, an electrode of rolled sheet lead is placed on its surface, and over this again is placed a second porous tray filled midi See also:celt with paste. The whole then looks like a thin earthen- See also:ware box with the lug of the electrode projecting from one end. The negatives consist of sheet lead covered by active material. On assembling the plates, each negative is held between two positive " boxes," the outsides of which have projecting vertical ribs. These press against the active material on the negative plates, and help to keep it in position. At the same time, the clearance between the ribs allows See also:room for acid to circulate freely between the negative plate and the outer face of the positive envelope. Diffusion of the acid through this envelope is easy, as it is very porous and not more than inch thick. See also:Traction Cells.—Attempts to run tramcars by accumulators have practically all failed, but traction cells are employed for electric broughams and See also:light vehicles for use in towns. There are no large deviations in manufacture except those imposed by limited space, See also:weight and vibration. The plates are generally thinner and placed closer together. The Plante positive is not used so much as in lighting types. The acid is generally a little stronger in See also:order to get a higher electromotive force (E.M.F.). To prevent the active material from being shaken out of the grids, corrugated and perforated ebonite separators are placed between the plates. The " chloride " traction cell uses a special variety of wood separator: the " exide " type of plate is used for both positive and negative. Cells are now made to run 3000 or more See also:miles before becoming useless. The specific output can be made as high as to or ii See also:watt-hours per See also:pound of cell, but this involves a See also:chance of shorter life. The See also:average working requirement for heavy vehicles is about 50 watt-hours per r000 lb per mile. Ignition Cells for motor cars are made on the same lines as traction cells, though of smaller capacity. As a See also:rule two cells are put up in ebonite or celluloid boxes and joined in series so as to give a 4-volt battery, the pressure for which sparking coils are generally designed. The capacity ranges from 20 to See also:ioo See also:ampere-hours, and the current for a single See also:cylinder See also:engine will average one to one and a half amperes during the See also:running intervals. General Features.—The tendency in stationary cells is to allow plenty of space below the plates, so that any active material which falls from the plates may collect there without See also:risk of short-See also:circuit, &c. More space is allowed between the plates, which means that (a) there is more acid within reach, and (b) a slight buckling is not so dangerous, and indeed is not so likely to occur. The plates are now generally made thicker than formerly, so as to secure greater mechanical rigidity. At the same time, the manufacturers aim at getting the active materials in as porous a state as possible. The figures with regard to specific output are difficult to classify. It would be most interesting to give the data in the form of watt-hours per pound of active material, and then to compare them with the theoretical values, but such figures are impossible in the nature of the case except in very special in-stances. For many purposes, long life and trustworthiness are more important than specific output. Except in the case of traction cells, therefore, the makers have not striven to reduce weight to its lowest values. Table I. shows roughly the weight of given types of cells for a given output in ampere hours. Type of Cell. Capacity in ampere-hours if Weight of Cell. discharged in 9 hrs. 6 hrs. 3 hrs. 
11 hr. Ordinary light- 200 182 153 I0I too pounds. See also:ing . . . . 420 38o 300 210 200 I200 to8o 88o 600 67o Central station 3500 3100 2500 1700 2000 and High Rate 6000 5400 4400 3000 3200 Traction . . 220 185 155 125 40 440 90 See also:Influence of Temperature on Capacity.—These figures are true only at ordinary temperatures. In See also:winter the capacity is diminished, in summer it is increased. The See also:differences are due partly to change of liquid resistance but more especially to the difference in the rate at which acid can diffuse into or out of the pores: obviously this is greater at higher temperatures. The increase in capacity on warming is appreciable, and may amount to as much as 3% per degree centigrade (Gladstone and Hibbert, Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng. xxi. 441; See also:Heim, Electrician, Nov. 1901, p. 55; Liagre, L'Edairage electrique, 1901, See also:xxix. 150). Notwithstanding these results, it is not advisable to warm accumulators appreciably. At higher temperatures, local action is greatly increased and deterioration becomes more rapid. It is well, however, to avoid low winter temperatures. Working of Accumulators.—Whatever the type of cell may be, it is important to attend to the following working requirements:—(I) The cells must be fully equal to the maximum demand, both in discharge rate and capacity. (2) All the cells in one series ought to be equal in discharge rate and capacity. This involves similarity of treatment. (3) The cells are erected on strong wooden stands. Where See also:floor space is too expensive, they can be erected in tiers; but, if possible, this should be avoided. They ought to See also:lie in rows, so arranged that it is easy to get to one side (at least) of every cell, for examination and testing, and if need be to detach and remove it or its plates. Where a second tier is placed over the first, sufficient clearance space must be allowed for the plates to be lifted out of the See also:lower boxes. The cells are insulated by supporting them on glass or See also:mushroom-shaped oil insulators. If the containing vessels are made of glass, it is desirable to put them in wooden trays which distribute the weight between the See also:vessel and insulators. To prevent acid spray from filling the See also:air of the room, a glass plate is arranged over each cell. The positive and negative sections are fixed in position with insulating forks or tubes, and the positive terminal of one cell is joined to the negative of the next by burning or bolting. If the latter method is adopted, the surfaces ought to be very clean and well pressed See also:home. The See also:joint ought to be covered by See also:vaseline or See also:varnish. When this has been done, examination ought to be made of each cell to see that the plates are evenly spaced, that the separators (glass tubes or ebonite forks between the plates) are in position and vertical, and that there are no scales or other See also:adventitious See also:matter connecting the plates. The floor of the cell ought to be quite clear; if anything lies there it must be removed. (4) To mix the See also:solution a See also:gentle stream of sulphuric acid must be poured into the water (not the other way, lest too See also:great See also:heating cause an See also:accident). It is necessary to stir the whole as the mixing proceeds and to arrange that the See also:density is about 1190, or according to the recommendation of the maker. About five volumes of water ought to be taken to one See also:volume of acid. After mixing, allow to cool for two or three hours. The strong acid ought to be See also:free from See also:arsenic, See also:copper and other similar impurities. The water ought to be as pure as can be obtained, distilled water being best; See also:rain water is also good. If potable water be employed, it will generally be improved by boiling, which removes some of the See also:lime held in solution. The impurity in ordinary drinking water is very slight; but as all cells lose by evaporation and require additions of water from time to time, there is a tendency for it to increase. The acid must not be put into the cells till everything is ready for charging. (5) A shunt-See also:wound or separately-excited See also:dynamo being ready and running so as to give at will 2.6 or 2.7 volts per cell, the acid is run into the cells. As soon as this is done, the dynamo must be switched on and charging commenced. The positive terminal of the dynamo must be joined to the positive terminal of the battery. If necessary, the + end of the See also:machine must be found by a trial cell made of two See also:plain lead sheets in dilute acid. It is important also to maintain this first charging operation for a long time without a break. Twelve hours is a minimum time, twenty-four not too much. The charging is not even then complete, though a short See also:interval is not so injurious as in the earlier See also:stage. The full charge., required varies with the cells, but in all types a full and practically continuous first charge is imperatively necessary. During the early See also:part of this charge the density of the acid may fall; but after a time ought to increase, and finally reach the value desired for permanent working. Towards the end of the " formation " vigilant observation must be exercised. It is important to See also:notice whether any cells are appreciably behind the others in voltage, density or gassing. Such cells may be faulty, and in any case they must be charged and tended till their condition is like that of the others. They ought not to go on the discharge circuit till this is assured. The examination of the cells before passing them as ready for discharge includes: (a) Density of acid as shown by the See also:hydrometer. (b) Voltage. This may be taken when charging or when idle. In the first case it ought to be from 2.4 to 2.6 volts, according to conditions. In the second case it ought to be just over 2 volts, provided that the observation is not taken too soon after switching off the charging current. For about half an See also:hour after that is done, the E.M.F. has a transient high value, so that, if it be desired to get the proper E.M.F. of the cell, the observation must be taken See also:thirty minutes after the charging ceases.
.(c) See also:Eye observations of the plates and the acid between them. The positive plates ought to show a See also:rich dark See also: See that it is free from any connexion between the plates which would cause short-circuiting; the See also:frame or support which carries the plates sometimes gets covered by a conducting layer. To restore the cell, two methods can be adopted. In private installations it may he disconnected and charged by one or two cells reserved for the purpose; or, as is preferable, it may be left in circuit, and a cell in good order put in parallel with it. This acts as a " milking " cell, not only pre-venting the faulty one from discharging, but keeping it supplied with a charging current till its potential difference (P.D.) is normal. Every battery attendant should be provided with a hydrometer and a See also:voltmeter. The former enables him to determine from time to time the density of the acid in the cells; See also:instruments specially constructed for the purpose are now easily procurable, and it is desirable that one be provided for every 20 or 25 cells. The voltmeter should read up to about 3 volts and be fitted with a suitable connector to enable contacts to be made quickly with any desired cell. A portable glow See also:lamp should also be available, so that a full light can be thrown into any cell; a frosted bulb is rather better than a clear one for this purpose. He must also have some form of wooden scraper to remove any growth from the plates. The scraping must be done gently, with as little other disturbance as possible. By the ordinary operations which go on in the cell, small portions of the plates become detached. It is important that these should fall below the plates, lest they short-circuit the cell, and therefore sufficient space ought to be left between the bottom of the plates and the floor of the cell for these " scalings " to accumulate without touching the plates. It is desirable that they be disturbed as little as possible till their increase seriously encroaches on the free space. It sometimes happens that See also:brass nuts or bolts, &c., are dropped into a cell; these should be removed at once, as their partial solution would greatly endanger the negative plates. The level of the liquid must be kept above the See also:top of the plates. Experience shows the advisability of using distilled water for this purpose. It may sometimes be necessary to replenish the solution with some dilute acid, but strong acid must never be added. The chief faults are buckling, growth, sulphating and disintegration. Buckling of the plates generally follows excessive discharge, caused by abnormal load or by accidental short-circuiting. At such times asymmetry in the cell is See also:apt to make some part of the plate take much more than its See also:share of the current. That part then expands unduly, as explained later, and curvature is produced. The only remedy is to remove the plate, and press it back into shape as gently as possible. Growth arises generally from scales from one part falling on some other—say, on the negative. In the next charging the See also:scale is reduced to a projecting See also:bit of lead, which grows still further because other particles rest on it. The remedy is, gently to scrape off any incipient growth. Sulphating, the formation of a See also: The chief properties of these substances are shown in Table II. The See also:curve in fig. 9 shows the relative conductivity (reciprocal of resistance) of all the strengths of sulphuric acid solutions, and by its aid and the figures in the preceding table, the specific resistance of any given strength can be determined. The lead accumulator is subject to three kinds of local action. First and chiefly, local action on the positive plate, because of the contact between lead peroxide and the lead grid which supports it. In carelessly made or roughly handled cells this may be a very serious matter. It would be so in all circumstances if the lead sulphate formed on the exposed lead grid did not See also:act as a covering for it. It explains why Plante found "repose" a useful help in "forming," and also why positive plates slowly disintegrate; the lead support is gradually eaten through. Secondly, local action on the negative plate when a more electro-negative metal settles on the lead. This often arises when the original paste or acid contains metallic impurities. Similar impurity is also introduced by scraping copper See also:wire, &c., near a battery. Thirdly, local action due to the acid varying in strength in different parts of a plate. This may arise on either plate and is set up because two specimens of either the same lead or the same peroxide give an E.M.F. when placed in acids of different strengths. J. H. Gladstone and W. Hibbert found that the E.M.F. depends on the difference of strength. With two lead plates, a maximum of about See also:quarter volt was obtained, the lead in the weaker acid being positive. With two peroxide plates the maximum voltage was about o•64, the plate in stronger acid being positive to that in weaker. The electromotive force of a cell depends chiefly on the strength of the acid, as may be seen from fig. ro taken from Gladstone and Hibbert's See also:paper (Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng., 1892). The observations with very strong acid were difficult to obtain, though even that with 98% acid marked X is believed to be trustworthy. C. Heim (Elek. Zeit, 1889), F. Streintz (See also:Ann. Phys. Chem. xlvi. p. 449) and F. Dolezalek (Theory of Lead Accumulators, p. 55) have also given tables. It is only necessary to add to these results the facts illustrated by the following diffusion curves, in order to get a complete See also:clue to the behaviour of an accumulator in active work. Fig. 11 shows the rate of diffusion from plates soaked in 1'175 acid and then placed in distilled water. It is from a paper by L. See also:Duncan and H. Wiegand (Elec. 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