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AFATR HARIWULA .yyFA 11AJUWULAFR HAERUWULAFIR WARAIT RUNAR 1)AIAI ;
Engl.: In memory of Hariwulfa, HalmwulfR, son of Heruwulfa, wrote these See also:runes.
Here, e.g. we find nom. sing. in -aR changed into -r (cf. haruwulafR with holtingaR on the See also:golden See also:horn), and the plural ending -OR into -aR (cf. runaR with runoR on the Jarsberg-See also: 900), chiefly from western See also:Norway, a See also:separate (western) Norwegian See also:dialect gradually sprang up, at first of course only differing slightly from the See also:mother-tongue. It was not until the definitive introduction of See also:Christianity (about A.D. loon) that the language was so far differentiated as to enable us to distinguish, in runic inscriptions and in the literature which was then arising, four different dialects, which have ever since existed as the four See also:literary languages—Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish and Danish. Of these the latter two, often comprehended within the name of Eastern Scandinavian, as well as the former two, Western Scandinavian, or, to use the Old Scandinavians' own name, Norr>dnt mdl, See also:Northern tongue, are very nearly related to each other. The most important differences between the two branches, as seen in the See also:oldest preserved documents, are the following: (I) In. E. Scand. far fewer cases of " Umlaut," as vare, W. Scand. vicere, were; See also:land, W. Scand. lend (from landu), lands; (2) E. Scand. " Brechung " of y into iu (or io) beforeng(w), nk(w), as siunga, W. Scand. syngua (from singwa), to sing; (3) in E. Scand. mp, nk, nt are in many cases not assimilated into pp, kk, tt, as krumpin, W. Scand. kroppenn, shrunken; cenkia, W. Scand. ekkia, widow; Differences See also:bant W. Scand. batt, he See also:bound; (4) .$See also:ast in E. Scand. the Easteerrn° See also:dative of the definite plural ends in -umin instead of and W. Scand. -onom, as in handumin, hendonom, (to) the Western hands; (5) in. E. Scand. the simplification of the scanainavian. verbal inflectional endings is far further advanced, and the passive ends in -s(s) for -sk, as in kallas(s), W. Scand. kallask, to be called. In several of these points, and indeed generally speaking, the Western Scandinavian See also:languages have preserved the more primitive forms, which also are found in the oldest Eastern Scandinavian runic inscriptions, dating from a period before the beginning of the literature, as well as in many See also:modern Eastern Scandinavian dialects. For, having regard to the Scandinavian dialects generally, we must adopt quite a different See also:classification from that indicated by the dialects which are represented in the literature. We now pass on to See also:review the latter and their See also:history.
I. ICELANDIC.—In See also:ancient times Icelandic was by far the most important of the Scandinavian languages, in form as well as in literature. To avoid See also:ambiguity, the language before the See also:Reformation (about 153o) is often called Old Icelandic.
1. Old Icelandic was spoken not only in Iceland, but also in See also:Greenland, where, as already mentioned, Icelandic colonists lived for a lengthened period. Our knowledge of its character Old is almost exclusively derived from the remarkably lceiandk. voluminous literature,' dating from the first See also:half of the
12th See also:century, and written in the Latin alphabet, adapted to the See also:special requirements of this language. No traces are found of any older runic literature. Indeed, Old Icelandic possesses only very few runic monuments (about See also:forty-five), all of them almost worthless from a philological point of view. The oldest, the inscriptions on the See also: 237, fol.) of a See also:Book of Homilies (of which a See also:short specimen is given below) is considered the oldest of all. About contemporary with this is the oldest See also:part of an See also:inventory entitled Reykjaholts mdldagi. From the end of the 12th century we possess a fragment (Cod. Reg. old sign. 1812) of the only existing Old Icelandic glossary, and from the first years of the 13th century the See also:Stockholm Book of Homilies (Cod. Holm. 15, 4to), which from a philological point of view is of the greatest importance, chiefly on See also:account of its very accurate See also:orthography, which is especially noticeable in the indication of quantity; from the See also:early part of the same century comes the fragment (Cod. AM. 325, 2, 4to) entitled 4grip (" abridgment " of the history of Norway), probably a copy of a Norwegian original, also orthographically important. Among later manuscripts we may mention, as philologically interesting, the Annales Regii (Cod. Reg. 2087) from the beginning of the 14th century, orthographically of See also:great value; the See also:rich See also:manuscript of miscellanies, Hauksbok (Codd. AM. 371, 544, 675, 4to), a great part of which is written with Haukr Erlendsson's (d. 1334) own hand; and, above all, three short essays, in which some Icelanders have tried to write a grammatical and orthographical See also:treatise on their own mother-tongue, all three appearing as an appendix to the manuscripts of the See also:Prose See also:Edda. The oldest and most important of these essays (preserved in the Cod. See also:Worm. from the last half of the 14th century) is by an unknown author of about 1140, the second (the oldest known manuscript of which is preserved in the Cod. Ups., c. 1300) is by an unknown author of about 1250; the third (the oldest manuscript in Cod. AM. 748, 4to, of the beginning of the 14th century) is by Snorri's See also:nephew Olafr Hvitaskhld (d. 1259), and is no doubt based partly upon a lost See also:work of the first grammarian of Iceland, pbroddr Riinameistari (who flourished at the beginning of the 12th century), partly and chiefly upon See also:Priscian and See also:Donatus.3 A See also:complete See also:catalogue of the literature edited hitherto is given by Th. See also:Mobius, Catalogus Librorum Islandicorum et Norvegicorum Aetatis Mediae (1856), and Verzeichniss der ... altisldndischen and altnorwegischen . . . von 1855 bis 1879 erschienenen Schriften (188o). Cf. ICELAND. 2 An account of the oldest Icelandic manuscripts (to about 1230) is given by J. Hoffory in the Gott. Gel. Anz. (1884), p. 478 sq. A short review of the most important Old Icelandic manuscripts (and their See also:editions), classed according to subjects, is given by O. See also:Brenner, Altnordisches Handbuch, pp. 13 sq. The See also:principal collections of manuscripts are—(1) the Arnamagnaean (AM.) in See also:Copenhagen, founded by Arni Magnusson (d. 1730) ; (2) the collection of the Royal Library (Reg.) in Copenhagen, founded by T. Torfaeus The oldest form of the Icelandic language is, however, not pre-served in the above-mentioned earliest manuscripts of the later Form half of the 12th century, which are written in the language of the of their own See also:age, but in far later ones of the 13th century, language which contain poems by the oldest Icelandic poets, such as the renowned Egill Skallagrimsson (about 950) and the unknown authors of the so-called Edda-songs. In spite of the See also:late date of the manuscripts, the metrical form has been the means of preserving a See also:good See also:deal of the ancient language. But, as already remarked, during the loth and 11th centuries this dialect differs but little from Norwegian, though in the 12th this is no longer the See also:case. We may here contrast a specimen of the above-mentioned oldest Icelandic manuscript with an almost contemporary Norwegian one (Cod. AM. 619; see below) : Icel.—En fiat es Norw.—En at er Engl.—And that is vitanda, at alit ma vitanda, at alit ma to be known that all andlega merkiasc oc andlega merkiasc oc that is needed for the fyllasc f oss, pat es fyllasc i os, at er decoration of the til kirkio bunings til kirkiu bunings church or the service epa pionosto parf at eta til pionasto arf may, spiritually, be haua, ef ver liuom at hafa, ef ver lifum found and imitated sva hreinlega at ver sva raeinlega, at ver within us, if we live sem See also:verger at callasc sem ver6ir at kallasc so cleanly that we are goes mustere. gu6s mysteri. worthy to be called See also:God's See also:temple. Apart from the fact that the language is, generally speaking, archaic, we find in the Icelandic See also:text two of the oldest and most essential characteristics of Icelandic as opposed to Norwegian, viz. the more complete vowel assimilation (pionosto, pionasto; cf. also, e.g. Icel. kollopom, Norw. kallad'um, we called) and the retention of initial h before r (hreinlega, rceinlega), 1 and n. Other differences, softie of which occur at this period, others a little later, are—in Icel. lengthening of a, o, u before if, 1g, 1k, lm and 1p (as Icel. hdlfr, Norw. and oldest Icel. halfr, half) ; later still, also of a, i, u and y before ng and nk; Icel. d and ey for older 0 and (Ay (as in Icel. ddma, heyra, Norw. and oldest Icel. d¢ma, to deem, heyra, to hear) ; Icel. termination of 2nd plur. of verbs in -6 (p) or -t, but Norw. often in -r (as Icel. taki5, -t, Norw. takir, you take). These points may be sufficient to characterize the language of the earlier ' classical " period of Icelandic (about 1150–1350). At the See also:middle of the 13th century the written language undergoes material changes, owing in a great measure, perhaps, to the powerful See also:influence of Snorri Sturloson. Thus in unaccented syllables i now appears for older e, and u (at first only when followed by one or more consonants belonging to the same syllable) for o; the passive ends in -z for -sk. The other differences from Norwegian, mentioned above as occurring later, are now completely established. - With the be-ginning of the 14th century there appear several new linguistic phenomena: a u is inserted between final r and a preceding consonant (as in rikur, mighty); 9 (pronounced as an open o) passes into o (the character o was not introduced till the 16th century), or before ng, nk into au (as See also:long fioll, pronounced laung fioll) ; e before ng, nk passes into ei; a little later a passes into ie, and the passive changes its termination from -z, oldest -sk, into -zt (or -zst) (as in kallazt, to be called). The See also:post-classical period of Old Icelandic (1350-1530), which is, from a literary point of view, of but little importance, already shows marked differences that are characteristic of Modern Icelandic; kn has, except in the northern dialects, passed into hn, as in kntitr, See also:knot; as early as the 15th century we find ddl for 11 and rl (as falla, pronounced faddla, to fall), ddn for nn and rn (as horn, pron. hoddn, horn), and a little later the passive ends in -st, e.g. kallast, to be called. Although dialectical differences are not altogether wanting, they do not occur to any great extent in the Old Icelandic literary Dialects language. Thus, in some manuscripts we find ft replaced by fst (oft, ofst, often); in manuscripts from the western part of the See also:island there appears in the 13th and 14th centuries a tendency to change If, rf into lb, rb (tolf, tolb, twelve; pgrf, pgrb, want), &c. To what extent the language of Greenland differed from that of Iceland we cannot See also:judge from the few runic monuments which have come down to us from that See also:colony. Apart from the comparatively inconsiderable attempts at a grammatical treatment of Old Icelandic in the middle ages which we have See also:Gram- mentioned above, See also:grammar as a See also:science can only be said See also:mat/cal to have begun in the 17th century. The first grammar, treatment. written by the Icelander Runolphus See also:Jonas (d. 1654), See also:dates from 1651. His contemporary and compatriot Gudmund Andreae (d. 1654) compiled the first See also:dictionary, which was not, however, edited till 1683 (by the Dane Petrus Resenius, d. 1688). The first scholars who studied Old Icelandic systematically were R. K. See also:Rask (1787–1832), whose See also:works 1 laid the See also:foundation to our (d. 1719) and Brynjolfr Sveinsson (d. 1674) ; O the Delagardian collection (Delag. or Ups.) at See also:Upsala, founded in 1651 by See also:Magnus See also:Gabriel de la Gardie; (4) the Stockholm collection (Holm.), founded by Jon Rugman (in 1662) and Jon Eggertson (in 1682). 1 E.g. Veiledning til det Islandske sprog (1811) ; in a new, much-improved Swedish edition, Anvisning til Islandskan (1818).knowledge of the language, and his great contemporary Jac. See also:Grimm, in whose Deutsche Grammatik (1819 seq.) particular See also:attention is paid to Icelandic. Those who since the See also:time of Rask and Grimm have principally deserved well of Icelandic grammar are—among the Norwegians, the ingenious and learned P. A. Munch (d. 1863), to whom we really owe the normalized orthography that has hitherto been most in use in editing Old Icelandic texts, and the solid worker at the syntax, M. Nygaard; the learned Icelander K. Gfslason (d. 1891), whose works are chiefly devoted to phonetic researches;2 the Danish scholars, K. J. Lyngby (d. 1871), the author of an See also:essay which is of fundamental importance in Icelandic orthography and See also:phonetics, and L. F. A. Wimmer, who has rendered great services to the study of the See also:etymology. The latest and greatest Icelandic grammar is by the Swede A. Noreen.' As lexicographers the first See also:rank is held by the Icelanders S. Egilsson (d. 1852),° G. See also:Vigfusson (d. 1889),5 and J. Porkelsson (d. 19o4),5 the Norwegian J. Fritzner (d. 1893),' the Swede L. Larsson,e and the See also:German H. Gering., 2. Modern Icelandic is generally dated from the introduction of the Reformation into Iceland; the book first printed, the New Testament of 154o, may be considered as the earliest Modern Modern Icelandic document. Although, on account of the Iceladic. exceedingly conservative tendency of Icelandic ortho- graphy, the language of Modern Icelandic literature still seems to be almost identical with the language of the 17th century, it has in reality undergone a See also:constant and active development, and, phonetic-ally regarded, has changed considerably. Indeed, energetic efforts to bring about an orthography more in accordance with phonetics were made during the years 1835–1847 by the See also:magazine entitled Fjolnir, where we find such authors as Jonas See also:Hallgrimsson and Konr. Gfslason ; but these attempts proved abortive. Of more remarkable etymological changes in Modern Icelandic we may See also:note Frm the following: y, y and ey at the beginning of the 17th oofthe century coincided with i, i and ei; the long vowels d, Ianguage d and o have passed into the diphthongs au (at least about 165o), ai (about 1700), ou, e.g. mal, language, See also:media, to speak, still, See also:chair; g before i, j is changed into dj (after a consonant) or j (after a vowel), e.g. liggia, to See also:lie, eigi, not; in certain other cases g has passed into gw or w, e.g. ldgur, See also:low, ljaiga, to lie; initial g before n is silent, e.g. (g)naga, to gnaw; ps, pt have passed into fs, ft; bb, dd, gg are pronounced as bp, dl, gk, and ii, rl, nn, rn now in most positions (not, however, before d, t and s, and in pet names) as dil, dtn, as fjall, See also:mountain, bjorn, See also:bear; f before n is now pronounced as bp, as hrafn, See also:raven, &c. Both in vocabulary and syntax we find early, e.g. in the lawbook Jonsbdk, printed in 1578(–1580), Danish exercising an important influence, as might be expected from See also:political circumstances. In the 18th century, however, we meet with purist tendencies. As one of the leading men of this century may be mentioned the poet Eggert Olafsson (d. 1168), whose poems were not printed till 1832. Worthy of mention in the history of Modern Icelandic language are the learned See also:societies which appeared in the same century, of which the first, under the name of " Hilt osynilega," was established in 176o. At this time archaic tendencies, going back to the Old Icelandic of the 13th and 14th centuries, were continually gaining ground. In the 19th century the following won especial renown in Icelandic literature: Bjarne porarensen (d. 1841), Iceland's greatest lyric poet, and Jonas Hallgrimsson (d. 1845), perhaps its most prominent prose-author in modern times. The dialectical differences in Modern Icelandic are comparatively trifling and chiefly phonetic. The Westland dialect has, for example, preserved the Old Icelandic long a, while the other Dialects. dialects have changed it to the diphthong au; in the Northland dialect initial kn is preserved, in the others changed into hn; in the northern and western parts of the island Old Icelandic by appear;, as kv, in a part of See also:south-eastern Iceland as x, in the other dialects as xw, e.g. hvolpur, whelp. As a See also:matter of curiosity it may be noted that on the western and eastern coasts traces are found of a See also:French-Icelandic language, which arose from the long sojourn of French fishermen there. Owing to the exclusive See also:interest taken in the ancient language, but little attention is given even now to the grammatical treatment of Modern Icelandic. Some notices of the language of the Gram-17th century may be obtained from the above-mentioned matical grammar of Runolphus Jonas (1651), and for the language treatment. of the 18th from Rask's grammatical works. For the language of our own time there is hardly anything to refer to but F. Jonsson's very short Islandsk Sproglcere (1905); cf. also B. Magnusson Olsen's valuable See also:paper ` Zur neuislandischen Grammatik " (Germania, See also:xxvii., 1882). A dictionary of merit was that of 2 Especially Um frumparta islenzkrar tdngu i fornold (1846). 3 Altislandische and altnorwegische Grammatik unter Berucksichtiglkng See also:des Urnordischen (1884), 3 Aufl• (1903). 4 See also:Lexicon poeticum (18J4–186o). 5 An Icelandic-See also:English Dictionary, based on the MS. collections of the late R. Cleasby (1869–1874). 5 Supplement til Islandske ordb4ger (1876, 1879–1885 and 1899). Ordbog over det Gamic Norske sprog (1862–1867, new ed. 1883, seq.). 9 Ordfdrrddeti de dlsta isldndska handskrifterna (1891). 9 Vollstandiges Worterbuch zu den Liedern der Edda (1903). Old Nor- stated, for some time spoken in parts of See also:Ireland and wegian. the See also:north of See also:Scotland, the Isle of See also:Man, the See also:Hebrides, See also:Shetland and See also:Orkney (in the last two See also:groups of islands it continued to survive down to the end of the 18th century), and also in certain parts of western Sweden as at See also:present defined (Bohuslan, Sarna in Dalarna, Jamtland and Harjedalen). Our knowledge of it is due only in a small measure to runic inscriptions, for these are comparatively few in number (about 15o), and of trifling importance from a philological point of view, especially as they almost wholly belong to the period betdieen 1050 and 1350,1 and consequently are contemporary with or at least not much earlier than the earliest literature. The most important are the detailed one of Karlevi on See also:Oland, wherein a Norwegian poet (towards See also:i000) in so-called " druttkuAt " See also:metre celebrates a Danish See also:chief buried there, and that of Froso in Jamtland, which (about Io5o) mentions the christianizing of the See also:province. The whole literature preserved is written in the Latin alphabet. The earliest manuscripts are not much later than the oldest Old Icelandic ones, and of the greatest interest. On the whole, however, the earliest Norwegian literature is in quality as well as in quantity incomparably inferior to the Icelandic. It amounts merely to about a See also:score of different works, and of these but few are of any literary value. A small fragment (Cod. AM. 655. 4to, Fragm. ix., A, B, c), a collection of legends, no doubt written a little before 1200, is regarded as the earliest extant manuscript. From the very beginning of the 13th century we have the Norwegian Book of Homilies (Cod. AM. 619, 4to) and several fragments of See also:law-books (e.g. the older Gulapingslaw and the older Eibsivapingslaw). Of later manuscripts the so-called legendary Olafssaga (Cod. Delag. 8, fol.), from about 1250, deserves mention. The chief manuscript (Cod. AM. 243 B., fol.) of the principal work in Old Norwegian literature, the See also:Speculum regale or Konungsskuggsid (" See also:Mirror for See also:Kings,") is again a little later. The masses of charters which—occurring throughout the whole middle age of Norway from the beginning of the 13th century—afford much See also:information, especially concerning the dialectical differences of the language, are likewise of great philological importance. As in Old Icelandic so in Old Norwegian we do not find the most primitive forms in the oldest See also:MSS. that have come down to us; for Form that purpose we must recur to somewhat later ones, See also:con- of the taining old poems from times as remote as the days of language. porbiorn Hornklofi (end of the 9th century). It has already been stated that the language at this epoch differed so little from other Scandinavian dialects that it could scarcely yet be called by a distinctive name, and also that, as Icelandic separated itself from the Norwegian mother-tongue (about 900), the difference between the two languages was at first infinitely small—as far, of course, as the literary language is concerned. From the 13th century, however, they exhibit more marked differences; for, while Icelandic develops to a great extent independently, Norwegian, owing to See also:geographical and political circumstances, is considerably influenced by the Eastern Scandinavian languages. The most important differences between Icelandic and Norwegian at the epoch of the oldest MSS. (about 1200) have already been noted. The tendency in Norwegian to reduce the use of the so-called u-Umlaut has already been mentioned. On the other hand, there appears in Norwegian in the 13th century another See also:kind of vowel-assimilation, almost unknown to Icelandic, the vowel in terminations being in some degree influenced by the vowel of the preceding syllable. Thus, for instance, we find in some manuscripts (as the above-mentioned legendary See also:Olaf ssaga) that the vowels e, o, 0 and long a, ri are followed in terminations by e, o; i, u, y, and short a, ce, on the other hand, by
u—as in bdner, prayers, konor, See also:women; but tib'ir, times, tungur, See also:tongues. The same fact occurs in certain Old Swedish manuscripts. When Norway had been See also:united later with Sweden under one See also:crown (1319) we meet pure Suecisms in the Norwegian literary language. In addition to this, the 14th century exhibits several differences from the old language: rl, rim are sometimes assimilated into II, nn—as kall (See also:elder karl), man, konn (korn), See also:corn, prestanner (prestarnir), the priests; i passes into y before r, 1—as hyrbir (hirb'ir), shepherd, lykyl (lykill), See also: In the 16th century, again, charters written in Norwegian occur only as rare exceptions, and from the Reformation onward, when the See also:Bible and the old See also:laws were translated into Danish, not into Norwegian, Danish was not only the undisputed literary language of Norway, but also the colloquial language of dwellers in towns and of those who had learned to read. Dialectical differences, as above hinted, occur in great number in the Norwegian charters of the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries. Especially marked is the difference between the language Dialects. of western Norway, which, in many respects, shows a development parallel to that of Icelandic, and the language of eastern Norway, which exhibits still more striking correspondences with contemporary Old Swedish. The most remarkable characteristics of the eastern dialects of this epoch are the following:—a is changed into a in the pronouns See also:Bann, this, poet, that, and the particle )ver, there (the latter as early as the 13th century), and later on (in the 14th century) also in terminations after a long See also:root syllable—as sendce, to send, h4yrce, to hear (but See also:gera, to do, mlita, to know); is passes (as in Old Swedish and Old Danish) into ice—as himerta (Icel. hiarta), See also:heart; y sometimes passes into iu before r, 1—as hiurder, shepherd, lykiul, key, instead of hyri ir, lykyl (older still, hirbir, lykill; see above); final -r after a consonant often passes into -ar, -ter, sometimes only into -a, -a—as prestar (prestr), See also:priest; b¢kar (b¢kr), books; dat. sing. br¢ba (br¢br), (to a) See also:brother; tl passes into tsl, sl—as lisla (litla), (the) little, the name Atsle, Asle (Atle) ; rs gives a " thick " s-See also:sound (written ls)—as Brerdols, genitive of the name Bergperr; nd, ld are assimilated into nn, 11—as bann (See also:band), band, the local name Vestfoll (Vestfold) ; and (as far back as the 13th century) traces occur of the vowel assimilation, tiljnvning," that is so highly characteristic of the modern Norwegian dialects—as vuko, vuku, for vaku (Icel. veko, -u), See also:accusative singular of vaka, See also:wake, mykyll for mykill, much. On the other hand, as characteristics of the western dialects may be noted the following: final -r after a consonant passes into -ur, -or, or -ir, -er—as vetur (vetr), See also:winter,. rettur (rettr), right, aftor (aftr), again; sl passes into tl—as sytla (sfsla), See also:charge; hw is changed into kw also in pronouns—as kuer (huerr), who. kuassu (huersu), how. . This splitting of the language into dialects seems to have continued to gain ground, probably with greater rapidity as a Norwegian literary language no longer existed. Thus it is very likely that the present dialectical See also:division was in all essentials accomplished about the See also:year 1600; for, judging from the first work on Norwegian dialectology,' the S¢ndfjord (Western Norway) dialect at least possessed at that time most of its present features. A little clog-See also:calendar of the year 1644 seems to prove the same regarding the Valders (Southern Norway) dialect. How far the Old Norwegian dialects on the Faeroes, in Ireland and Scotland, on the Scottish islands, and on the Isle of Man differed from the mother-tongue it is impossible to decide, on account of the few remnants of these dialects which exist apart from local names, viz. some charters (from the beginning of the 15th century onward) from the Faeroes, Shetland and the Orkneys, and a few runic inscriptions from the Orkneys (See also:thirty in number), and the Isle of Man (about thirty in number).' These runic inscriptions, however, on account of their imperfect orthography, throw but little See also:light on the subject. Of the Orkney dialect we know at least that initial hl, hn, hr still preserved h in the 13th century—that is, at least two See also:hundred years longer than in Norway. Old Norwegian grammar has hitherto always been taken up in connexion with Old Icelandic, and confined to notes and appendices inserted in works on Icelandic grammar. A systematic Gram-treatise on Old Norwegian grammar is still wanting, with See also:mental the exception of a short work by the Danish See also:scholar treatment. N. M. Petersen (d. 1862), which, although brief and decidedly antiquated, deserves all praise. Among those who in See also:recent days have above all deserved well for the investigation of the Old Norwegian may be mentioned, as to the grammar, the Swede E. Wadstein and the Norwegian M. Hngstad; as to the lexicography, the Norwegian E. See also:Hertzberg, for the law terms, and O. Rygh (d. 1899), for the local names, while the See also:personal names are collected by the Swede E. H. See also:Lind. A most valuable collection of materials 2 C. See also:Jensen's Norsk dictionarium eller glosebog (1646). 3 See P. M. C. Kermode, See also:Manx Crosses (1907). Bjorn Haldorsen (d. 1794), edited in 1814 by Rask. Cleasby-Vigfusson's dictionary mentioned above also pays some attention to the modern language. A really convenient Modern Icelandic dictionary is still wanting, the desideratum being only partly supplied by J. Thorkelsson's excellent Supplement til islandske ordby ger, iii. (189o-1894). II. NORWEGIAN OR NORSE.—T& Old Norwegian language (till the Reformation) was not, like the modern language, con- fined to Norway and the Faeroes, but was, as already Old Swedish, during its earliest pre-literary period (800-1225), retains quite as original a character as contemporary Form Old Icelandic and Old Norwegian. The first part of the of the inscription of the Rokstone See also:running thus— language. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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