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ITALIAN LANGUAGE
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See also:ITALIAN See also:LANGUAGE .1 The Italian language is the language of culture in the whole of the See also:present See also:kingdom of See also:Italy, in some parts of See also:Switzerland (the See also:canton of See also:Ticino and See also:part of the See also:Grisons), in some parts of the See also:Austrian territory (the districts of See also:Trent and See also:Gorz, See also:Istria along with See also:Trieste, and the Dalmatian See also:coast), and in the islands of Corsica2 and See also:Malta. In the Ionian Islands, likewise, in the maritime cities of the See also:Levant, in See also:Egypt, and more particularly in See also:Tunis, this See also:literary language is extensively maintained through the numerous Italian colonies and the See also:ancient traditions of See also:trade. The Italian language has its native seat and living source in See also:Middle Italy, or more precisely See also:Tuscany and indeed See also:Florence. For real linguistic unity is far from existing in Italy; in some respects the variety is less, in others more observable than in other countries which equally boast a See also:political and literary unity. Thus, for example, Italy affords no linguistic contrast so violent as that presented by See also:Great See also:Britain with its See also:English dialects alongside of the See also:Celtic dialects of See also:Ireland, See also:Scotland and See also:Wales, or by See also:France with the See also:French dialects alongside of the Celtic dialects of See also:Brittany, not to speak of the Basque of the See also:Pyrenees I The See also:article by G. I. See also:Ascoli in the 9th edition of the See also:Encyclopaedia Britannica, which has been recognized as a classic See also:account of the Italian language, was reproduced by him, with slight modifications, in See also:Arch. glott. viii. 98-128. The author proposed to revise his article for the present edition of the Encyclopaedia, but his See also:death on the 21st of See also:January 1907 prevented his carrying out this See also:work, and the task was undertaken by See also:Professor C. Salvioni. In the circumstances it was considered best to confine the revision to bringing Ascoli's article up to date, while preserving its See also:form and See also:main ideas, together with the addition of See also:bibliographical notes, and occasional corrections and substitutions, in See also:order that the results of more See also:recent See also:research might be embodied. The new See also:matter is principally in the form of notes or insertions within square brackets. 2 jln See also:Corsica the present position of Italian as a language of culture is as follows. Italian is only used for See also:preaching In the See also:country churches. In all the other relations of public and See also:civil See also:life (See also:schools, See also:law courts, meetings, See also:newspapers, See also:correspondence, &c.), its See also:place is taken by French. As the elementary schools no longer See also:teach Italian but French, an educated Corsican nowadays knows onl his own See also:dialect for everyday use, and French for public occasions.and other heterogeneous elements. The presence of not a few Slays stretching into the See also:district of See also:Udine (See also:Friuli), of Albanian, See also:Greek and Slav settlers in the See also:southern provinces, with the Catalans of See also:Alghero (See also:Sardinia, v. Arch. glott. ix. 261 et seq.), a few Germans at See also:Monte See also:Rosa and in some corners of See also:Venetia, and a remnant or two of other comparatively See also:modern immigrations is not sufficient to produce any such strong contrast in the conditions of the See also:national speech. But, on the other See also:hand, the Neo-Latin dialects which live on See also:side by side in Italy differ from each other much more markedly than, for example, the English dialects or the See also:Spanish; and it must be added that, in Upper Italy especially, the See also:familiar use of the dialects is tenaciously retained even by the most cultivated classes of the See also:population. In the present rapid See also:sketch of the forms of speech which occur in modern Italy, before considering the Tuscan or Italian See also:par excellence, the language which has come to be the See also:noble See also:organ of modern national culture, it will be convenient to discuss (A) dialects connected in a greater or less degree with Neo-Latin systems that are not See also:peculiar to Italy; 3 (B) dialects which are detached from the true and proper Italian See also:system, but form no integral part of any See also:foreign Neo-Latin system; and (C) dialects which diverge more or less from the true Italian and Tuscan type, but which at the same See also:time can be conjoined with the Tuscan as forming part of a See also:special system of Neo-Latin dialects. A. Dialects which depend in a greater or less degree on Neo-Latin systems not peculiar to Italy. i. Franco-Provencal and Provencal Dialects.—(a) Franco-Provencal (see Ascoli, Arch. glott. di. 61-12o; Suchicr, in Grundriss der romanischen Philologie, 2nd ed., i. 755, &c.; See also:Nigra, Arch. glott. iii. i sqq.; Salvioni, Rendic. istit. See also:lamb., s. ii. vol. See also:xxxvii. 1043 sqq. ; Cerlogne, Dictionnaire See also:die See also:patois valdodtain (See also:Aosta, 1907). These occupy at the present time very limited areas at the extreme See also:north-See also:west of the kingdom of Italy. The system stretches from the See also:borders of See also:Savoy and See also:Valais into the upper See also:basin of the Dora Baltea and into the See also:head-valleys of the Orco, of the See also:northern Stura, and of the Dora Riparia. As this portion is cut off by the See also:Alps from the See also:rest of the system, the type is badly preserved; in the valleys of the Stura and the Dora Riparia, indeed, it is passing away and everywhere yielding to the Piedmontese. The most salient characteristic of the Franco-Provencal is the phonetic phenomenon by which the Latin a, whether as an accented or as an unaccented final, is reduced to a thin vowel (e, i) when it follows a See also:sound which is or has been palatal, but on the contrary is kept intact when it follows a sound of another sort. The following are examples from the Italian side of these Alps: AosTA: travalji, Fr. travailler; zarzi, Fr. charger; enteruzi, Fr. interroger; zevra, Fr. chevre; zit, Fr. See also:cher; gljd4, Fr. glace; vdzze, Fr. vache; alongside of sa, Fr. sel; See also:man, Fr. main; epousa, Fr. epouse; erba, Fr. herbe. VAL. SOANA: talj~r, Fr. tailler; coti-sse, Fr. se coucher; fin, Fr. chien; fivra, Fr. chevre; vatli, Fr. vache; mdngi, Fr. See also:manche; alongside of aldr, Fr. aller; portd, Fr. See also:porte; amara, Fr. amere; See also:neva, Fr. See also:neuve. CHIAMORIO (Val di Lanzo): la spranssi dla vendeta, sperantia de ilia vindicta. VII; pansci, pancia. USSEGLIO: la miiragli, muraille. A morphological characteristic is the preservation of that paradigm which is legitimately traced back to the Latin pluperfect indicative, although possibly it may arise from a See also:fusion of this pluperfect with the imperfect subjunctive (amaram, amarem, alongside of habueram, haberem), having in Franco-Provencal as well as in Provencal and in the See also:continental .Italian dialects in which it will be met with further on (C. 3, b; cf. B. 2) the See also:function of the conditional. VAL SOANA : portdro, portdre, portdret ; portdront ; AOSTA : dvre = Prov. See also:agra, haberet (see Arch. iii. 31 n). The final See also:tin the third persons of this paradigm in the Val Soana dialect is, or was, See also:constant in the whole conjugation, and becomes in its turn a particular characteristic in this See also:section of the Franco-Provencal. VAL SOANA: Bret, See also:Lat. erat; sejt, sit; pertet, porta'See also:vet; portgnt, portdvgnt; CHIAMORIO: jeret, erat; See also:ant dit, habent dictum; bjssount See also:jet, habuissent factum; Viu: che s'minget, Ital. che si mangi: GRAVERE (Val di See also:Susa): at pensd, ha pensato; avdt, habebat; GIAGLIONE (See also:sources of the Dora Riparia) ; macidvont, mangiavano.—From the valleys, where, as has just been said, the type is disappearing, a few examples of what is still genuine Franco-Provencal may be subjoined: Civreri (the name of a See also:mountain between the Stura and the Dora Riparia), which, according to the See also:regular course of See also:evolution, presupposes a Latin Capraria (cf. maneri, maniera, even in the Chiamono dialect) ; farasti (ciarasti), carestia, in the Viu dialect; and fintd, cantare, in that of Usseglio. From CHIAMORIO, li tens, i tempi, and chejches birbes, alcune (qualche) birbe, are worthy of mention on account of the 3 [It may be asked whether we ought not to include under this section the Vegliote dialect (Veglioto), since under this form the Dalmatian dialect (Dalmatico) is spoken in Italy. But it should be remembered that in the present See also:generation the Dalmatian dialect has only been heard as a living language at See also:Veglia.] final s. [In this connexion should also be mentioned the Franco- The Ladin See also:element is clearly observable in the most ancient examples of the dialects of the Venetian See also:estuary (Arch. i. 448-473). The main characteristics by which the Ladin type is determined may be summarized as follows: (I) the guttural of the formulae c+a and g+a passes into a palatal; (2) the 1 of the formulae pl, cl, &c., is preserved; (3) the s of the ancient terminations is preserved; (4) the accented e in position breaks into a diphthong; (5) the accented o in position breaks into a diphthong; (6) the form of the diphthong which comes from See also:short accented o or from the o of position is ue (whence iie, o) ; (7) See also:long accented e and short accented i break into a diphthong, the purest form of which is sounded ei; (8) the accented a tends, within certain limits, to See also:change into e, especially if preceded by a palatal sound; (9) the long accented u is represented by ii. These characteristics are all foreign to true and genuine Italian. See also:earn, carne; spelunca, spelunca; clefs, claves; fuormas, formae; infiern, infernu; ordi, hordeu; mod, modu; See also:plain, plenu; See also:pail, pilu; quael, quale; pur, guru—may be taken as examples from the Upper See also:Engadine (western section of the See also:zone). The following are examples from the central and eastern sections on the Italian versant : a. Central Section.—BAsIN OF THE NocE: examples of the dialect of Fondo: Cavel, capillu; peseador, piscatore; pluvvia, pluvia (plovia); pluma (See also:dial. of Val de Rumo: plovia, plumo); vicla, vetula; Edntes, cantas. The dialects of this basin are disappearing.—BASIN OF THE Avlslo: examples of the dialect of the Val di Fassa: earn, carne; ttiier, cadere (cad-jere); vcita, vacca; fired, furca; gleaia. (gala), See also:ecclesia; oeglje (oeje), oculi; fans, canes; rdmes, rami; teila, tela; neif, nive; coessa, coxa. The dialects of this basin which are farther west than Fassa are gradually being merged in the Veneto-Tridentine dialects.—BASIN OF THE CORDEVOLE: here the district of Livinal-Lungo (Buchenstein) is Austrian politically, and that of Rocca d'Agordo and Laste is Italian. Examples of the dialect of Livinal-Lungo: twit, Ital. caricare; See also:Conte, cantatus; ogle, oculu; Cans, canes; eaveis, capilli; vierm, verme; fiiOc, focu; avei, habere; See also:nei, nive.—BAsIN OF THE BoITE: here the district of Ampezzo (Heiden) is politically' Austrian, that of Oltrechiusa Italian. Examples of the dialect of Ampezzo are Casa, casa; tandera, candela; forces, furcae, pl.; sentes, sentis. It is a decadent form.—UPPER BASIN OF THE PIAVE: dialect of the Comelico: Cesa, casa; ten (can), See also:cane; Calje, caligariu; See also:bos, boves; noevo, novu; loego, locu. b. Eastern Section or Friulian Region.—Here there still exists a flourishing " Ladinity," but at the same time it tends towards Italian, particularly in the want both of the e from a and of the u (and consequently of the d). Examples of the Udine variety: earr, carro; Caval, caballu; eastiel, castellu; forte, furca; See also:clan, claru; glac, glacie; See also:plan, planu; colors, colores; lungs, longi, pl.; devis, debes; vidiel, vitello; fieste, See also:festa; puess, possum; cuett, coctu; udrdi, hordeu.—The most. ancient specimens of the Friulian dialect belong to the 14th See also:century (see Arch. iv. 188 sqq.). B. Dialects which are detached from the true and proper Italian system, but form no integral part of any foreign Neo-Latin system. Provencal colonies of Transalpine origin, Faeto and See also:Celle, in See also:Apulia (v. Morosi, Archivio glottologico, xii. 33-75), the linguistic relations of which are clearly shown by such examples as talij, Ital. tagliare; See also:ban`ij, Ital. bagnare; side by side with Canth, Ital. cantare; lud, Ital. levare.] (b) Provencal (see La Lettura i. 716-717, Romanische Forschungen See also:xxiii. 525-539).Farther See also:south, but still in the same western extremity of See also:Piedmont, phenomena continuous with those of the Maritime Alps See also:supply the means of passing from the Franco-Provencal to the Provencal proper, precisely as the same transition takes place beyond the Cottian Alps in See also:Dauphine almost in the same See also:latitude. On the Italian side of the Cottian and the Maritime Alps the Franco-Provencal and the Provencal are connected with each other by the continuity of the phenomenon C (a pure explosive) from the Latin c before a. At OuLx (sources of the Dora Riparia), which seems, however, to have a rather mixed dialect, there also occurs the important Franco-Provencal phenomenon of the surd interdental (English th in thief) instead of the surd sibilant (for example ithi=Fr. See also:ici). At the same time agii=avuto, takes us to the Provencal. [If, in addition to the Provencal characteristic of which agii is an ex-ample, we consider those characteristics also Provencal, such as the o for a final unaccented, the preservation of the Latin diphthong au, p between vowels preserved as b, we shat' find that they occur, together or separately, in all the Alpine varieties of Piedmont, from the upper valleys of the Dora Riparia and Clusone to the Colle di Tenda. Thus at FENESTRELLE (upper valley of the Clusone) : agu, vengu, Ital. venuto; pauc, Lat. paucu, Ital. poco; aribd (Lat. ripa), Ital. arrivare; truba, Ital. trovare; ciabrin, Ital. capretto: at OuLx (source of the Dora Riparia): agu, vengu; lino gran famino e venuo, Ital. una gran fame e venuta; at GIAGLIONE: auvou, Ital. See also:odo (Lat. audio) ; arribd, resebii, Ital. ricevuto (Lat. recipere) ; at ONCINO (source of the Po): agu, vengu; ero en campagno, Ital. " era in campagna "; donavo, Ital. dava; paure, Lat. pauper, Ital. povero; trubd, ciabri; at SANPEYRE (valley of the Varaita): agu, volgii, Ital. voluto; pressioso, Ital. preziosa; fasio, Ital. faceva; trobar; at ACCEGLIO (valley of the Macra): venghess, Ital. venisse; virro, Ital. ghiera; chesto allegrio, Ital. questa allegria; ero, Ital. era; trobd; at CASTELMAGNO (valley of the Grana): gii, vengu; rabbio, Ital. rabbia; trubar; at VINADIO (valley of the southern Stura); agu, beigii, Ital. bevuto; cadeno, Ital. catena; See also:mango, Ital. manica; See also:Canto, Ital. canta; See also:pau, auvi, Ital. udito; Iabe, Ital. sapete; trobar; at VALDIERI and ROASCHIA (valley„Of the See also:Gesso): purgil, Ital. potuto; pjagii, Ital. piaciuto; corrogu, Ital. corso; pau; arribd, ciabri; at LIMONE (Colle di Tenda): agu, vengu; saber, Ital. sapere; ariibd, trubava. Provenccal also, though of a See also:character rather Transalpine (like that of Dauphine) than native, are the dialects of the Vaudois population above See also:Pinerolo (v. Morosi, Arch. glott. xi. 309-416), and their colonies of Guardia in See also:Calabria (ib. xi. 381-393) and of Neu-Hengstett and Pinache-See also:Serres in See also:Wurttemberg (ib. xi. 393-398). The Vaudois literary language, in which is written the Nobla Leyczon, has, however, no See also:direct connexion with any of the spoken dialects; it is a literary language, and is connected with literary Provencal, the language of the troubadours; see W. Foerster, Gottingische gelehrte Anzeigen (1888) Nos. 20-21.] 2. Ladin Dialects (Ascoli, Arch. glott. i., iv. 342 sqq., vii. 406 sqq.; Gartner, Ratoromanische Grammatik (See also:Heilbronn, 1883), and In Grundriss der romanischen Philologie, 2nd ed., i. 6o8 sqq.; Salvioni, Arch. glott. xvi. 219 sqq.).—The purest of the Ladin dialects occur on the northern versant of the Alps in the Grisons (Switzerland), and they form the western section of the system. To this section also belongs both politically and in the matter of dialect the valley of See also:Munster (Monastero) ; it sends its See also:waters to the See also:Adige, and might indeed consequently be geographically considered Italian, but it slopes towards the north. In the central section of the Ladin zone there are two other valleys which likewise drain into tributaries of the Adige, but are also turned towards the north,—the valleys of the Gardena and Gadera, in which occurs the purest Ladin now extant in the central section. The valleys of Munster, the Gardena and the Gadera may thus be regarded as inter-Alpine, and the question may be See also:left open whether or not they should be included even geographically in Italy. There remain, however, within what are strictly Italian limits, the valleys of the Noce, the Avisio, the Cordevole, and the Boite, and the upper basin of the Piave (Comelico), in which are preserved Ladin dialects, more or less pure, belonging to the central section of the Ladin zone or See also:belt. To Italy belongs, further, the whole eastern section of the zone composed of the Friulian territories. It is by far the most populous, containing about 500,000 inhabitants. The Friulian region is bounded on the north by the Carnic Alps, south by the Adriatic, and west by the eastern rim of the upper basin of the Piave and the Livenza; while on the See also:east it stretches into the eastern versant of the basin of the Isonzo, and, further the ancient dialect of Trieste was itself Ladin (Arch. glott. X. 447 et seq.). The Ladin element is further found in greater or less degree throughout an altogether Cis-Alpine " amphizone," which begins at the western slopes of Monte Rosa, and is to be noticed more particularly in the upper valley of the Ticino and the upper valley of the Liro and of the Mera on the See also:Lombardy versant, and in the Val Fiorentina and central Cadore on the Venetian versant. 1. Here first of all is the extensive system of the dialects usually called Gallo-Italian, although that designation cannot be considered sufficiently distinctive, since it would be equally applicable to the Franco-Provencal (A. I) and the Ladin (A. 2). The system is sub-divided into four great See also:groups—(a) the Ligurian, (b) the Piedmontese, (c) the Lombard and (d) the Emilian—the name furnishing on the whole sufficient indication of the localization and limits.—These groups, considered more particularly in their more pronounced varieties, differ greatly from each other; and, in regard to the Ligurian, it was even denied that it belongs to this system at all (see Arch. ii. 111 sqq.).—Characteristic of the Piedmontese, the Lombard and the Emilian is the continual elision of the unaccented final vowels except a (e.g. Turinese oj, oculu; Milanese vgg, voce; Bolognese vid, Ital. vite), but the Ligurian does not keep them See also:company (e.g. Genoese oggu, oculu ; See also:vote, voce). In the Piedmontese and Emilian there is further a tendency to eliminate the protonic vowels—a tendency much more pronounced in the second of these groups than in the first (e.g. Pied. dne, danaro; vi in, vicino; fnof, finocchio; Bolognese Ord, disperato). This phenomenon involves in large measure that of the See also:prothesis of a; as, e.g. in Piedmontese and Emilian armor, rumore; Emilian alveir, levare, &c. U for the long accented Latin u and o for the short accented Latin o (and even within certain limits the short Latin o of position) are See also:common to the Piedmontese, the Ligurian, the Lombard and the northernmost section of the Emilian: e.g., Turinese, Milanese and Piacentine diir, and Genoese duu, duro; Turinese and Genoese move, Parmigiane mover, and Milanese mof, muovere; Piedmontese dorm, dorme; Milanese See also:volta, volta. Ei for the long accented Latin e and for the short accented Latin i is common to the Piedmontese and the Ligurian, and even extends over a large part of See also:Emilia: e.g.Turinese and Genoese zvei, habere, Bolognese aveir; Turinese and Genoese beive, bibere Bolognese neiv, neve. In Emilia and part of Piedmont ei occurs also in the formulae en, ent, emp; e.g. Bolognese and Modenese beiiz, solameint. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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