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CURIA ROMANA

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Originally appearing in Volume V07, Page 643 of the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica.
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See also:

CURIA See also:ROMANA , the name given to the whole See also:body of administrative and judicial institutions, by means of which the See also:pope carries on the See also:general See also:government of the See also:Church; the name is also applied by an See also:extension of meaning to the persons who See also:form See also:part of it, and sometimes to the See also:Holy See itself. See also:Rome is almost the only See also:place where the word curia has preserved its See also:ancient form; elsewhere it has been almost always replaced by the word See also:court (cour, See also:corte), which is etymologically the same. Even at Rome, however, the expression " papal court " (corte romana) has acquired by usage a sense different from that of the word curia; as in the See also:case of royal courts it denotes the whole body of dignitaries and officials who surround and attend on the pope; the pope, however, has two establishments: the See also:civil See also:establishment, in which he is surrounded by what is termed his " See also:family " (familia) ; and the religious establishment, the members of which form his " See also:chapel " (See also:capella). The word curia is more particularly reserved to the, tribunals and departments which actually See also:deal with the general business of the Church. I. In See also:order to understand the organization of the various constituent parts of the See also:Roman Curia, we must remember that the See also:modern principle of the separation of See also:powers is General unknown to the Church; the functions of each depart- remarks. ment are limited solely by the extent of the powers delegated to it and the nature of the business entrusted to it; but each of them may have a See also:share at the same See also:time in the legislative, judicial and administrative See also:power. Similarly, the See also:necessity for referring matters to the pope in See also:person, for his approval or ratification of the decisions arrived at, varies greatly according to the See also:department and the nature of the business. But on the whole, all sections of the Curia hold their powers See also:direct from the pope, and exercise them in his name. Each of them, then, has supreme authority within its own See also:sphere, while the See also:official responsibility belongs to the pope, just as in all governments it is the government that is responsible for the acts of its departments. Of these official acts, however, it is possible to distinguish two categories: those emanating directly from the heads of departments are generally called Acts of the Holy See (and in this sense the Holy See is See also:equivalent to the Curia); those which emanate direct from the pope are called Pontifical Acts. The latter are actually the Apostolic Letters, i.e. those documents in which the pope speaks in his own name (bulls, briefs, encyclicals, &c.) even when he does not sign them, as we shall see. The Apostolic Letters alone may be ex cathedra documents, and may have the See also:privilege of See also:infallibility, if the See also:matter admit of it.

There are also certain See also:

differences between the two sorts of documents with regard to their penal consequences. But in all cases the disciplinary authority is evidently the same; we need only See also:note that acts concerning individuals do not claim the force of general See also:law; the legal decisions serve at most to See also:settle matters of See also:jurisprudence, like the judgments of all See also:sovereign courts. The constituent parts of the Roman Curia fall essentially into two classes: (I) the tribunals and offices, which for centuries Dtv;s;on. served for the transaction of business and which continue their activity; (2) the permanent commissions of cardinals, known by the name of the Roman Congregations. These, though more See also:recent,, have taken See also:precedence of the former, the See also:work of which they have, moreover, greatly relieved; they are indeed composed of the highest; dignitaries of the church, the cardinals (q.v.), and are, as it were, subdivisions of the See also:consistory (q.v.), a See also:council in which the whole of the Sacred See also:College takes part. II. The Roman Congregations.—The constitution of all of these is the same; a council varying in See also:numbers, the members of which are cardinals, who alone take part in the Roman deliberations. One of the cardinals acts as See also:president, See also:cone gaBoa& or See also:prefect, as he is called; the See also:congregation is assisted by a secretary and a certain number of inferior officials, for secretarial and See also:office work. They have also consultors, whose'See also:duty it is to study the subjects for See also:consideration. Their deliberations are See also:secret and are based on prepared documents bearing on the case, written, or more often printed, which are distributed to all the cardinals about ten days in advance. The deliberations , follow a simplified See also:procedure, which is founded more on See also:equity than on the more strictly legal forms,_ and decisions are given in the shortest possible form, in See also:answer to carefully formulated questions or dubia. The See also:cardinal prefect, aided by the secretariate, deals with the See also:ordinary business, only important matters being submitted for the consideration of the general See also:meeting. To have the force of law the acts of the congregations must be signed by the cardinal prefect and secretary, and sealed with his See also:seal.

Practically the only exception is in the cases of the Holy Office, and of the Consistorial Congregation of which the pope himself is prefect; the acts of the first are signed by the " See also:

notary," and the acts of the second by the See also:assessor. We may pass over those temporary congregations of cardinals known also as " See also:special," the authority and existence of which extend only to the consideration of one particular question; and also those which had as their See also:object various aspects of the temporal See also:administration of the papal states, which have ceased to exist since 1870. We deal here only with the permanent ecclesiastical congregations, the real machinery of the papal administration. Some of them go quite far back into the 16th See also:century; but it was See also:Sixtus V. who was their See also:great organizer; by his See also:bull Immensa of the 22nd of See also:January 1587, he apportioned all the business of the Church (including that of the papal states) among fifteen Congregations of cardinals, some of which were already in existence, but most of which were established by him; and these commissions, or those of them at least which are concerned with spiritual matters, are still working. A few others have been added by his successors. See also:Pius X., by the constitution Sapienti Consilio of the 29th of See also:June 1908, proceeded to a general reorganization of the Roman Curia: Congregations, tribunals and offices. In this constitution he declared that the competency of these various See also:organs was not always clear, and that their functions were badly arranged; that certain of them had only a small amount of business to deal with, while others were overworked; that strictly judicial affairs, with which the Congregations had not to deal originally, had See also:developed to an excessive extent, while the tribunals, the See also:Rota and the Signatura, had nothing to do. He consequently withdrew all judicial affairs from the Congregations, and handed them over to the two tribunals, now revived, of the Rota and the papal Signatura; all affairs concerning the discipline of the sacraments were entrusted to a new Congregation of that name; the competency of the remaining Congregations was modified, according to the nature of the affairs with which they deal, and certain of them were amalgamated with others; general rules were laid down for the expedition of business and regarding personnel; in Visitation was suppressed by Pius X. as a See also:separate Congregation, See also:short, the work of Sixtus V. was repeated and adapted to later conditions. We will now give the nomenclature of the Roman Congregations, as they were until 1908, and mentioning the modifications made by Pius X. (1) The Holy See also:Inquisition, Roman and universal, or Holy Office (Sacra Congregatio Romanae et universalis Inquisitions seu Sancti Officii), the first of the Congregations, hence called the supreme. It is composed of twelve cardinals, The Ho; Office. assisted by a certain number of officials: the assessor, who practically fulfils the functions of the secretary, the See also:commissary general, some consultors and the qualificators, whose duty it is to determine the degree of theological condemnation deserved by erroneous doctrinal propositions (haeretica, erronea, temeraria, &c.).

The See also:

presidency is reserved to the pope, and the cardinal of longest See also:standing takes the See also:title of secretary. This Congregation, established in 1542 by See also:Paul III., constitutes the tribunal of the Inquisition (q.v.), of which the origins are much older, since it was instituted in the 13th century against the Albigenses. It deals with all questions of See also:doctrine and with the repression of See also:heresy, together with those crimes which are more or less of the See also:character of heresy. Its procedure is subject to the strictest secrecy. Pius X. attached to it all matters concerning indulgences ; on the other See also:hand, he transferred to the Congregation of the Council matters concerning the precepts of the Church such as See also:fasting, See also:abstinence and festivals. The choosing of bishops, which had in recent times been entrusted to the Holy Office, was given to the Consistorial Congregation, and dispensations from religious vows to the Congregation of the Religious Orders. The Holy Office continues, however, to deal with mixed marriages and marriages with infidels. (2) The Consistorial Congregation (Sacra Congregatio Consistorialis), established by Sixtus V., has as its object the preparation of business to be dealt with and decided in secret consistory (q.v.); notably promotions to See also:cathedral Consist oris/. churches and consistorial benefices, the erection of dioceses, &c. To this congregation is also subject the administration of the See also:common See also:property of the college of cardinals. Pius X. restored this Congregation to a position of great importance; in the first place he gave it the effective See also:control of all matters concerning the erection of dioceses and chapters and the See also:appointment of bishops, except in the case of countries subject to the Propaganda, and See also:save that for countries outside See also:Italy it has to See also:act upon See also:information furnished by the papal secretary of See also:state. He further entrusted to this Congregation everything See also:relating to the supervision of bishops and of the See also:condition of the dioceses, and business connected with the seminaries. It has also the duty of deciding disputes as to the competency of the other Congregations.

The pope continues to be its prefect, and the cardinal secretary of the Holy Office and the secretary of state are ex officio members of it ; the cardinal who occupies the highest See also:

rank in it, with the title of secretary, is chosen by the pope ; he is assisted by a See also:prelate with the title of assessor, who is ex officio secretary of the Sacred College. The assessor of the Holy Office and the secretary for extraordinary ecclesiastical affairs are ex officio consultors. (3) The Pontifical See also:Commission for the See also:reunion of the dissident Churches, established by See also:Leo XIII. in 1895 after his constitution Orientalium. The pope reserved the presidency for himself; its activity is merely nominal. It was attached by Pius X. to the Congregation of the Propaganda. (4) The Congregation of the Apostolic Visitation (Sacra Congregatio Visitationis apostolicae). The Visitation is the See also:personal inspection of institutions, churches, religious establishments and their personnel, to correct abuses The v;s;t- at;on. and enforce the observation of rules. Through this Congregation the pope, as See also:bishop of Rome, made the inspection of his See also:diocese; it is for this See also:reason that he was president of this commission, the most important member of which was the cardinal See also:vicar. He takes the place of the pope in the administration of the diocese of Rome; he has his own offices and diocesan assistants as in other bishoprics. The Congregation of the and was reduced to a See also:mere commission which is attached, as before, to the Vicariate. (5) The Congregation on the discipline of the sacraments (Sacra Congregatio de Disciplina Sacramenlorum), established by Pius X., thus comes to occupy the third rank.

With the See also:

reservation of those questions, especially of a dogmatic character, which belong to the Holy Office, and of purely See also:ritual questions, which come under the Congregation of See also:Rites, this Congregation brings under one authority all disciplinary questions concerning the sacraments, which were formerly distributed among several Congregations and offices. It deals with dispensations for marriages, ordinations, &c., concessions with regard to the See also:mass, the communion, &c. (6) The Congregation of the Bishops and Regulars, of which the' full official title was, Congregation for the Affairs and Consultations of the Bishops and Regulars (Sacra Congregatio super negotiis Episcoporum et Regularium; now Sacra Congregatio negotiis religiosorum sodalium praeposita). It is the result of the See also:fusion of two previous commissions; that for the affairs of bishops, established by See also:Gregory XIII., and that for the affairs of the See also:regular See also:clergy, founded by Sixtus V.; the fusion See also:dates from See also:Clement VIII. (16or). This congregation was very much occupied, being empowered to deal with all disciplinary matters concerning both the See also:secular and regular clergy, whether in the form of consultations or of contentious suits; it had further the exclusive right to regulate the discipline of the religious orders and congregations See also:bound by the See also:simple vows, the statutes of which it examined, corrected and approved; finally it judged disputes and controversies between the secular and regular clergy. On the 26th of May 1906, Pius X. incorporated in this Congregation two others having a similar object: that on the discipline of the regular clergy (Congregatio super Disciplina Regularium), founded by See also:Innocent XII. in 695, and that on the condition of the regular clergy (Congregatio super Stale Regularium), established by Pius IX. in 1846. In 1908 Pius X. withdrew from this Congregation all disciplinary matters affecting the secular clergy, and limited its competency to matters concerning the religious orders, both as regards their See also:internal affairs and their relations with the bishops. (7) The Congregation of the Council (Sacra Congregatio Cardinalium Concilii Tridentini interpretum), i.e. a number of council cardinals whose duty it is to interpret the disciplinary decrees of the council of See also:Trent, was instituted by Pius IV. in 1563, and reorganized by Sixtus V.; its See also:mission is to promote the observation of these disciplinary decrees, to give authoritative interpretations of them, and to reconcile disputes arising out of them. Pius X. in 1908 entrusted to this Congregation the supervision of the general discipline of the secular clergy and the faithful laity, empowering it to deal with matters concerning the precepts of the Church, festivals, See also:foundations, church property, benefices, provincial See also:councils and episcopal assemblies. Proceedings for annulling marriages, which used to be reserved to it, were transferred to the tribunal of the Rota; reports on the condition of the dioceses were henceforth to be addressed to the Consistorial Congregation, which involved the suppression of the commission which had hitherto dealt with them. The other commission, formerly charged with the revision of the decrees of provincial councils, was merged in the Congregation itself.

The Congregation of See also:

Immunity (Sacra Congregatio Jurisdictionis It Immunitatis ecdesiaslicae) was created by See also:Urban VIII. (1626) to See also:watch over the immunities of the clergy in respect of person or property, whether See also:local or general. This, having no longer any object, was also attached to the Congregation of the Council, and is now amalgamated with it. (8) The Congregation of the Propaganda (Sacra Congregatio de Propaganda Fide) was established by Gregory XV. in 1622, and added to by Urban VIII., who founded the Propa- celebrated College of the Propaganda for the See also:education gan gander of missionaries, and his polyglot See also:press for See also:printing the liturgical books of the See also:East. It had See also:charge of the administration of the See also:Catholic churches in all non-Catholic countries, for which it discharged the functions of all the Congregations, except (9) The Congregation of the See also:Index (Congregatio indicis librorum prohibitorum), founded by St Pius V. in 1571 and reorganized by Sixtus V., has as its object the examina- index. See also:Lion and the condemnation or See also:interdiction of See also:bad or dangerous books which are submitted to it, or, since the constitution " Sapienti," of those which it thinks See also:fit to examine on its own initiative (see INDEX). (to) The Congregation of Rites (Congregatio sacrorum Rituum), founded by Sixtus V., has exclusive charge of the See also:liturgy and liturgical books; it also deals with the proceedings Rites. in the See also:beatification and See also:canonization of See also:saints. Of See also:late years there have been added to it a Liturgical Commission, a Historico-liturgical Commission, and a Commission for church See also:song, the functions of which are sufficiently indicated by their names. (II) The Ceremonial Congregation (Sacra Congregatio caeremonialis), the prefect of which is the cardinal See also:dean, was instituted by Sixtus V.; its mission is to settle monial questions of precedence and See also:etiquette, especially at the papal court; it is nowadays but little occupied. (12) The Congregation of Indulgences and See also:Relics (Sacra Congregatio Indulgentiarum et Sacrarum Reliquiarum), founded in 1669 by Clement IX., devoted itself to eradicating Indul- any abuses which might creep into the practice of genre genres. indulgences and the cult of relics. It had also the duty of considering applications for the concession of indulgences and of interpreting the rules with regard to them.

In 1904 Pius X. attached this Congregation to that of Rites, making the personnel of both the same, without suppressing it. In 1908, however, it was suppressed, as stated above, and its functions as to indulgences were transferred to the Holy Office, and those as to relics to the Congregation of Rites. (13) The Congregation of the Fabric of St See also:

Peter's (Sacra Congregatio reverendae Fabricae S. Petri) is charged with the upkeep, See also:repairs and temporal administration of the great See also:basilica. 12 Bishops and Regulars. extra- to study the difficult questions relative to See also:France, ordinary affairs. was afterwards definitively continued by Pius VII.; and there has been no lack of fresh extraordinary matters. It also dealt with the administration of the churches of Latin See also:America, not.to mention certain See also:European countries, such as See also:Russia, under the same conditions as the Propaganda in countries under See also:missions. Since the constitution Sapienti, its competency has been confined to the examination, at the See also:request of the secretary of state, of questions which are submitted to it, and especially those arising from civil See also:laws and concordats. (16) The Congregation of Studies (Congregatio See also:pro Univtrsitate studii Romani, Congregazione degli Studi), founded by Sixtus studies. V. to act as a higher council for the Roman university of La Sapienza, had ceased to have any functions when in 1824 it was re-established by Leo XII. to supervise education in Rome and the Papal States; since 187o it has been exclusively concerned with the Catholic See also:universities, so far as the sacred sciences are concerned. With this should be connected the commission for See also:historical studies, instituted in 1883 by Leo XIII., at the same time as he threw the Vatican archives freely open to scholars. of the functions allotted to the Congregations of cardinals, the old machinery of the ecclesiastical administration has Tribunals not been abolished; and the See also:process of centralization and offices. which has been accentuated in the course of the last few centuries, together with the facility of communication, ensured for them a fresh activity, new offices having even been added.

The See also:

chief thing to be observed is that the prelates who were formerly at the See also:head of these departments have almost all been replaced by cardinals. The following is the See also:list of the tribunals and offices, including the changes introduced by the reorganization of the Curia by Pius X. in 1908. The tribunals are three in number: one for the See also:forum internum, the See also:Penitentiary; the other two for judicial matters.in See also:faro externo, the Rota and the papal Signatura. (I) The Penitentiary (Sacra poenitentiaria Apostolica) is the tribunal having exclusive See also:jurisdiction in matters of See also:conscience (in foro interno), e.g. dispensations from secret impedinttary. ments and private vows, the See also:absolution of reserved cases. These concessions are applied for anonymously. It also had, previously to the constitution Sapienti, a certain jurisdiction in foro externo, such as over matrimonial dispensations for poor See also:people. Its concessions are absolutely gratuitous. Since the 12th century, the papal court had already had officials known as penitentiaries (poenitentiarii) for matters of conscience; the organization of the Penitentiary, after several modifications, was renewed by See also:Benedict XIV. in 1748. At the head of it is the cardinal See also:grand penitentiary (See also:major poenitentiarius), assisted by the regens (It. regente) and various other functionaries and officials. (2) The court of the Rota (Sacra Rota Romana) used to be the supreme ecclesiastical tribunal for civil affairs, and its decisions had great authority. This tribunal goes back at leastas far as the 14th century, but its activity had been reduced as a result of the more expeditious and See also:summary, and less costly, procedure of the Congregations. The constitution Rots.

Sapienti restored the Rota to existence and activity: it is now once more the ecclesiastical court of See also:

appeal for both civil and criminal cases. Pius X. also made special regulations for it, by which its ancient usages are adapted to modern circumstances. The tribunal of the Rota consists of ten See also:judges called auditors (uditori), of whom the most See also:senior is president with the title of dean. Each See also:judge has an See also:auxiliary; to the tribunal are attached a promotor fiscalis, charged with the duty of securing the due application of the law, and an official charged with the See also:defence of See also:marriage and ordination; there is also a clerical .See also:staff (notaries, See also:scribes) attached to the court. Cases are judged by three auditors, who succeed each other periodically (per turnum) according to the order in which the cases are entered, and in exceptional cases by all the auditors (videntibus See also:omnibus). Under the jurisdiction of the Rota, in addition to cases of first instance submitted to it by the pope, are such judgments of episcopal courts as are strictly speaking subject to appeal; for petitions against non-judicial decisions are referred to the Congregations. Appeal is sometimes allowed from one " turn " to another; if the second See also:sentence of the Rota confirms the first, it is definitive; if not, a third may be_obtained. (3) The supreme tribunal of the papal Signatura (Signatura Apostolica). There were formerly two sections: the Signatura Justitiae and the Signatura Gratiae; by the See also:con- si aturs. stitution Sapientis they were suppressed and See also:amal- gamated into one body, the Signatura Apostolica, which is the exact equivalent of other modern courts of cassation. This tribunal is composed of six cardinals, one of whom is the prefect, assisted by a prelate secretary, consultors and the necessary inferior officials. It judges cases in which auditors of the Rota are concerned, such as personal objections, but especially objections (querelae) lodged against sentences of the Rota, with a view to their being annulled or revised (restitutio in integrum). Next come the offices, now reduced to six in number.

(I) The See also:

Chancery (Cancellaria Apostolica), the department from which are sent out the papal letters, has for a See also:long time See also:drawn up only those letters written in See also:solemn form Chancery. known as bulls. The bull, so called from the leaden seal (bulla), is written on thick See also:parchment; the special See also:writing known as Lombard, which used to be used for bulls, was abolished by Leo XIII., and the leaden seal reserved for the Buu more important letters; on the others it has been replaced by a red See also:ink See also:stamp bearing both the emblems represented on the leaden seal: the two heads, See also:face to face, of St Peter and St Paul, and the name of the reigning pope. Bulls are written in the name of the pope, who styles himself " (Pius) Episcopus servus servorum Dei; (Pius), bishop, servant of the servants of See also:God." They were formerly dated by kalends and from the era of the Incarnation, which begins on the 25th of See also:March, but in 1908 Pius X. ordered them to be dated according to the common era. It is practically only bulls of canonization which are signed by the pope and all the cardinals See also:present in Rome; the See also:signature of the pope is then " (Pius) Episcopus Ecclesiae catholicae," while his ordinary, signature bears only his name and number, " Pius PP. X." Ordinary bulls are signed by several officials of the chancery, and a certain number only by the cardinal at its head, who until 1908 was styled See also:vice-See also:chancellor, because the chancellor used formerly to be a prelate, not a cardinal; but since the constitution Sapienti has been entitled chancellor. He is assisted by several officials, beginning with the regens of the chancery. To the chancery were attached the abbreviatores de parco majori vel minori (see See also:ABBREVIATORS), formerly charged with the See also:drawing up or " extension " of bulls; they were suppressed by Pius X., and their functions transferred to the Protonotarii See also:apostolici participantes (i.e. active). Further, Pope Pius confined the functions of the chancery to the sending out of bulls under the leaden seal (sub plumbo), for the erection of dioceses, the See also:provision of bishoprics and in this capacity it controls the famous manufacture of the Vatican mosaics. It also formerly enjoyed certain spiritual powers for the reduction of the obligations imposed by Fabric pious legacies and foundations, the See also:objects of which, for of St See also:Peters. want of funds or any other reason, could not be fully carried out, and for the condonation of past omission of such obligations, e.g. of priests to celebrate the See also:foundation masses of their benefices. In 1908 these powers were taken away from it by Pius X., and transferred to the Congregation of the Council, which already exercised some of them. (14) The Congregation of Loretto (Congregatio Lauretana) discharged the same functions for the See also:sanctuary of that name; its temporal administration was latterly very much reduced, and in 1908 it was See also:united by Pius X. with the Congregation of the Council. (15) The Congregation for extraordinary ecclesiastical affairs (Sacra Congregatio super negotiis ecclesiasticis extraordinariis), established by Pius VI. at the end of the 18th century consistorial benefices, and other affairs of importance, these bulls being sent out by order of the Consistorial Congregation.

(2) The Apostolic Dataria is the department dealing with matters of See also:

grace, e.g. the concession of privileges, nominations to benefices and dispensations in faro externo, especially Dataria matrimonial ones; but its functions have been greatly Apos- tollca. reduced by the reforms of Pius X.; the matrimonial See also:section has been suppressed,dispensations for marriages now belonging to the Congregation for the discipline of the sacraments; the section dealing with benefices, which is the only one preserved, deals with non-consistorial benefices reserved to the Holy See; it examines the claims of the candidates, draws up and sends out the letters of See also:collation, gives dispensations, when necessary, in matters concerning the benefices, and manages the charges (i.e. See also:pensions to incumbents who have resigned, &c.) imposed on the benefices by the pope. It has at its head a cardinal formerly called the pro-datarius, the datarius having formerly been a prelate; and now datarius, since the reform by Pius X. The cardinal is assisted by a prelate called the sub-datarius, and other officials. (3) The Apostolic Chamber (Reverenda See also:Camera Apostolica) was before the abolition of the temporal power of the papacy the See also:ministry of See also:finance, at once See also:treasury and See also:exchequer, Apostolic of the popes as heads of the Catholic Church as well as chamber. sovereigns of the papal states. Although it is neces- sarily diminished in importance, it has retained the administration of the property of the Holy See, especially during a vacancy. At its head is the cardinal camerlengo (Sanctae Romanae Ecclesiae Cardinalis See also:Camerarius), who, as we know, exercises the See also:external authority during the vacancy of the Holy See. (4) Next come the See also:palatine secretariates, the first and See also:principal of which is the secretariate of state (Secretaria status). The cardinal secretary of state is as it were the pope's secretary- See also:prime See also:minister, gathering into one centre the internal See also:ship of state. administration and See also:foreign affairs, by means of the nunciatures and delegations depending on his department. The secretary of state is the successor of what was called in the 77th century the cardinal See also:nephew; his functions and importance have increased more and more. The secretariate of state is the department dealing with the See also:political affairs of the Church. To it belongs the internal administration of the apostolic palaces, with the library, archives, museums, &c.

In 1908 Pius X. divided the departments of the secretariate of state into three sections, under the authority of the cardinal secretary. The first is the department of extraordinary ecclesiastical affairs, having at its head the secretary of the Congregation of the same name; the second, that of ordinary affairs, directed by a substitute, is the department dealing, among other things, with the concession of honorary distinctions, both for ecclesiastics and laymen; the third is that of the briefs, which hitherto Briefs. formed a separate secretariate. It is this department which sends out, at the command of the secretary of state or the various Congregations those papal letters which are written in less solemn form, brevi manu, hence the word " brief." They are written in the pope's name, but he only takes the less solemn See also:

style of: " Pius PP. X." The brief is written on thin parchment, and dated by the ordinary era and the See also:day of the See also:month; they were formerly signed only by the cardinal secretary of briefs or his substitute, but now by the cardinal secretary of state or the head of the office, called the chancellor of Briefs (cancellarius Brevium). The seal is that of the fisherman's See also:ring, hence the See also:formula of conclusion, " Datum Romae, sub annulo Piscaloris." The " Fisherman's ring " is a red ink stamp representing St Peter on a See also:boat casting out his nets, with the name of the reigning pope. The reform of Pius X. maintained untouched the two offices called the secretariate of briefs to princes, and the secretariate of Latin Letters, the names of which are sufficient indica- tion of their functions. The secretariate of memorials (Secret See also:aria Memorialium) , through which pass See also:requests addressed to the pope for the purpose of obtaining certain favours, was formerly of great importance; it is now suppressed and the requests are addressed to the proper departments. Finally, the pope has his special secretary, his auditor, with his offices, as well as the papal See also:almonry, the officials of which administer the papal charities. IV. The pontifical " family " (familia) forms the pope's civil court. First come the palatine cardinals, i.e. those who, on See also:account of their office, have the right) of living in the papal palaces. These were formerly four in number: the pro-datarius (now datarius), the secretary of state, the secretary of briefs, and the secretary of the memorials; the two last of these were suppressed in 1908.

Next come the four palatine prelates, the majordomo, the See also:

superintendent of the See also:household and its staff, and successor of the ancient vicedominus; the See also:master of the chamber, who presides over the arrangement of audiences; the auditor, or private secretary; and finally the master of the sacred See also:palace (magister sacri palatii), a See also:kind of theological adviser, always a Dominican, whose special duty is nowadays the revision of books published at Rome. Other prelates rank with the above, but in a See also:lower degree, notably the See also:almoner and the various secretaries. All ecclesiastics admitted, by virtue of their office or by a gracious concession of the pope, to form part of the " family," are called domestic prelates, prelates of the household; this is an honorary title conferred on many priests not See also:resident in Rome. The external service of the palace is performed by the Swiss Guard and the See also:gendarmerie; the service of the ante-chamber by the See also:lay and ecclesiastical chamberlains; this service has also given rise to certain honorary titles both for ecclesiastics, e.g. honorary See also:chamberlain, and for laymen, e.g. secret chamberlain (cameriere segreto). (See CHAMBERLAIN.) V. The pontifical " chapel " (capella) is the papal court for purposes of religious See also:worship. In it the pope is surrounded by the cardinals according to their order; by the patriarchs, archbishops and bishops attending at the See also:throne, and others; by the prelates of the Curia, and by all the clergy both secular and regular. Among the prelates we should mention the protonotaries, the successors of the old notaries or officials of the papal chancery in the earliest centuries; the seven protonotarii participantes were restored by Pope Pius X. to the chancery, as noted above, but they have kept important honorary privileges; this is yet another source of distinctions conferred upon a great number of priests outside of Rome, the protonotaries of different classes. In a lower degree there are also the chaplains of See also:honour. Since 187o the great pontifical ceremonies have lost much of their splendour.

End of Article: CURIA ROMANA

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