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CHILDRENITE
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CHILDRENITE , a rare See also:mineral See also:species; a hydrous basic See also:aluminium See also:iron phosphate, orthorhombic in See also:crystallization. The ferrous See also:oxide is in See also:part replaced by manganous oxide and See also:lime, and in the closely allied and isomorphous species eosphorite See also:manganese predominates over iron. The See also:general See also:formula for the two species is Al(Fe, Mn)(OH)2PO4+H20. Childrenite is found only as small brilliant crystals of a yellowish-See also: The colour is sometimes yellowish-See also: The See also:movement when once fully appreciated went ahead very rapidly. In the United States See also:Illinois was the first state to See also:call a distinct children's court into existence, and Judge See also:Richard Tuthill was the See also:pioneer at See also:Chicago, where the court was established in 1899. Many states followed suit, including New See also:York, See also:Pennsylvania, Rhode See also:Island, See also:Wisconsin, See also:Kansas, See also:Colorado, See also:Indiana and others, till the number rose to nineteen in 1906. In New York, where juvenile probation is supervised by the Society for the See also:Protection of Children, there is a separate children's court with rooms attached, where the children for detention wait till they are brought in for trial. See also:Brooklyn has also a children's court. In Pennsylvania, where the juvenilecourt was at first opposed as unconstitutional, the difficulty was met by first bringing the See also:child before the See also:magistrate in the See also:police court, a course which (though followed by his transferring the case to the special court) perpetuated the very evils the children's court was intended to avoid; the See also:work of probation was, however, most effectively carried out, chiefly by See also:female officers. The Chicago Juvenile Court sits twice weekly under an especially appointed judge, and policemen See also:act as probation officers to some extent. The court of See also:Indianapolis, however, gained the reputation of being the most See also:complete and perfect in the United States. It See also:works with a large and highly efficient See also:band of volunteer probation officers under a See also:chief. The juvenile court of See also:Denver, Colorado, attained remarkable results under Judge B. See also:Lindsey, whose magnetic See also:personality, wonderful comprehension of boy nature, and extraordinary See also:influence over them achieved great results. The court meets once a fortnight, when fresh cases are tried and boys already on probation See also:report themselves, often to the number of two See also:hundred at a time. The latter See also:appeal' before the judge in batches, each hands in his school report in a sealed See also:letter, and according to its purport receives praise or blame, or he may be committed to the Detention See also:House. An efficient court was also constituted at See also:Baltimore, See also:Maryland, with a judge especially chosen to preside, probation being for fixed periods, varying from three months to three years, and children being brought back to the court for See also:parole or See also:discharge, or, if necessary, committal to the house of one of the philanthropic See also:societies. In See also:Washington, D.C., the system of having no distinct court or judge, but holding a separate session, was followed, and it was found that See also:numbers of children came to the court for help and guidance, looking upon the judge for the time being as their friend and counsellor. Probation in this instance offered See also:peculiar difficulties on account of the colour question, two-thirds of the children having See also:negro See also:blood and a white boy being always preferred for a vacant situation. Throughout, the See also:action of juvenile courts in the United States has been to bring each individual into " human See also:touch " with kindly helpful workers striving to See also:lead the See also:young idea aright and See also:train it to follow the straight path. It was the result always of the effort of private persons and not due to See also:government initiative, indeed the See also:advocates and champions of the system only established it by overcoming strong opposition from the authorities. Progress in the same direction has been made in See also:England. The See also:home See also:office had recommended See also:London police magistrates to keep children's cases separate from those of adults; the same practice or something analogous obtained in many See also:county boroughs, such as See also:Bath, See also:Birmingham, See also:Bristol, See also:Bolton, See also:Bradford, See also:Hull, See also:Manchester, See also:Walsall, See also:Halifax and others, and the Children Act 1908 definitely established children's courts. This act enacted that courts of See also:summary See also:jurisdiction when hearing charges, &c., against children or young persons should, unless the child or young See also:person is charged jointly with an adult, sit in a different See also:building or See also:room from that in which the ordinary sittings of the court are held, or on different days or at different times. Further-more, See also:provision must be made for preventing persons apparently under the See also:age of sixteen years whilst being conveyed to or from court, or whilst waiting before or after their attendance in court, from associating with adults, unless such adults are charged jointly with them. The act prohibits any persons other than members and officers of the court, the parties to the case, their solicitors, counsel and other persons directly concerned in the case, from being present in a juvenile court, except by leave of the court. See also:Bona-fide See also:press representatives are also excepted. The See also:main See also:object of the whole system is to keep the child, the embryotic offender who has probably erred from See also:ignorance or the pressure of circumstances or misfortune, altogether See also:free from the taint or contagion that attaches to criminal proceedings. The moral See also:atmosphere of a legal tribunal is injurious to the youthful mind, and children who appear before a See also:bench, whether as accused or as See also:witness, gain a contemptuous familiarity with legal processes. The most beneficial action of the children's court comes from its association with the system of See also:personal guardianship and See also:close supervision exercised by the probation officers, See also:official and voluntary. Where the intervention of the newly constituted tribunal can not only See also:save the child from evil association when first arrested, but can See also:rescue him without condemnation and committal to See also:prison, its functions may be relied upon to diminish See also:crime by cutting it off at the source. Much depends upon the quality and temperament of the presiding authority. Where a judge with special aptitude can be appointed, See also:firm, sympathetic, tactful and able to gain the confidence of those brought before him, he may do great See also:good, by dealing with each individual and not merely with his offence, realizing that the court does not exist to condemn but to strengthen and give a fresh See also:chance. Where the children's court is only a See also:branch of the existing jurisdiction worked by the See also:regular magistrate or judge fulfilling his ordinary functions and not specially chosen, the beneficial results are not so noticeable. (A. G.) CHILDREN'S See also:GAMES. The study of traditional games has in See also:recent years become an important branch of See also:folklore See also:research in England, and has contributed not a little towards elucidating many unrecorded facts in See also:early See also:history. These games may be broadly divided into two kinds—dramatic games, and games of skill and chance. These differ materially in their object. Games of skill and chance are played for the purpose of winning See also:property from a less fortunate player. The dramatic games consist of non-singing and singing games; they are divided betwee:l boys' games and girls' games. Boys' games are mostly of a contest See also:character, girls' of a more domestic type. The boys' dramatic games have preserved some interesting beliefs and customs, but the tendency in these games, such as "prisoner's See also:base," has been to drop the words and tune and to preserve only that part (action) which tends best for exercise and use in school playgrounds. The girls' singing-games have not See also:developed on these lines, and have therefore not lost so much of their early characteristics. The singing games consist of words, tune and action. The words, in See also:verse, See also:express ideas contained in customs not now in See also:vogue, and they may be traced back to events taking See also:place between men and See also:women and between See also:people of different villages. The tunes are See also:simple, and the same tune is frequently used for different games. The actions are illustrative of the ideas to be expressed. The players represent various objects—animals, villages and people. The singing See also:game is therefore not a game in the usual sense of the word. There is no See also:element of " gambling " or playing " to win " in it—no one is richer or poorer for it; it also requires a number of children to See also:play together. It is really a " play," and has survived because it has handed down some instances of See also:custom and belief which were deeply rooted and which made a strong appeal to the See also:imagination of our ancestors. The singing games represent in dramatic form the survival of those ceremonial dances See also:common to people in early stages of development. These dances celebrated events which served to bind the people together and to give them a common See also:interest in matters affecting their welfare. They were dramatic in character, singing and action forming a See also:parr of them, and their performers were connected by ties of place or kindred. They are probably survivals of what we might call folk See also:drama. In these times it was held imperative to perform religious ceremonies periodically; at See also:sowing and harvesting to ensure good crops; in the care of See also:cattle and on occasions of See also:marriage, See also:birth and See also:death. These were matters affecting the welfare of the whole community. Events were celebrated with See also:dance, See also:song and feasting, and no event was too trivial to be unconnected with some belief which rendered ceremony necessary. At first these ceremonial dances had deep religious feeling for their basis, but in See also:process of time they became purely See also:secular and were performed at certain seasons only, because it was the custom to do so. They then became recognized as beautiful or pleasing things in the See also:life of the people, and so continued, altering somewhat in ideas but retaining their old dramatic forms. They were danced by old and young at festivals and holidays, tnese being held about the same time of See also:year as that at which the previous religious ceremonies had been held. Singing games are danced principally in one of two methods, " See also:line " and " circle." These represent two of the early forms of dramatic action. The " line " form (two lines of players See also:standing opposite each other having a space of ground between them, advancing and retiring in turn) represents two different and opposing parties engaged in a struggle or contest. This method is used in all cases where contest is involved. The " circle " form, on the other hand, where all players join hands, represents those occasions when all the people of one place were engaged in celebrating events in which all were interested. Thus games celebrating sowing and See also:harvest, and those associated with love and marriage, are played in this form. Both these methods allow of development. The circle varies from examples where all perform the same actions and say the same words to that where two or more players have See also:principal parts, the others only singing or acting in dumb show, to examples where the singing has disappeared. The form or method of play and the actions constitute the See also:oldest remaining parts of the game (the words being subject to alterations and loss through ignorance of their meaning), and it is to this form or method, the actions and the See also:accompaniment of song, that they owe their survival, appealing as they do to the strong dramatic See also:instinct of children and of uncultured folk. It will be convenient to give a few instances of the best-known singing games. In " line " form, a fighting game is " We are the Rovers." The words tell us of two opposing parties fighting for their See also:land; both sides- alternately deride one another and end by fighting until one side is victorious. Two other " line " games, " Nuts in May " and " Here come three See also:dukes a-See also:riding," are also games of contest, but not for territory. These show an early custom of obtaining wives. They represent marriage by See also:capture, and are played in " line " form because of the element of contest contained in the custom. Another form, the " See also:arch," is also used to indicate contest. Circle games, on the contrary, show such customs as harvest and marriage, with love and courting, and a ceremony and See also:sanction by assembled See also:friends. " Oats and beans and See also:barley " and " Sally See also:Water " are typical of this form. The large See also:majority of circle games See also:deal with love or marriage and domestic life. The customs surviving in these games deal with tribal life and take us back to " See also:foundation See also:sacrifice," " well See also:worship," " sacredness of See also:fire," besides marriage and funeral customs. Details may be found in the periodical publications of the Folk-See also:lore Society, and particularly in the following works:—A. B. Gomme's Traditional Games of Great See also:Britain (2 vols., Nutt, 1894–'898); Gomme's Children's Singing Games (Nutt, 19ol); Eckenstein's See also:Comparative Studies in Nursery Rhymes (See also:Duckworth, 1906); Maclagan, Games of See also:Argyllshire, Folk-lore Society (190o) ; Newell's Games of See also:American Children (Harper Bros., New York, 1884). In Mrs Gomme's Traditional Games, several versions of each game, together with a See also:short account of the suggested origin and of the custom or belief indicated, are given for each game. In vol. ii. (pp. 458-531) a memoir of the history of games is given, and the customs and beliefs which originated them, reviewing the whole subject from the anthropological point of view, and showing the place which games occupy among the evidences of early See also:man. In See also:Miss Eckenstein's comparative study of nursery rhymes suggested origins are given for many of these, and an See also:attempt made to localize certain of the customs and events. In several of the publications of the Folk-lore Society See also:local collections of games are given, all of which may be studied with See also:advantage. Stubbes and other early writers give many instances of boys' games in their days, many of which still exist. See also:Tylor and other writers on See also:anthropology, in dealing with See also:savage custom, confirm the views here expressed. For nursery rhymes see Halliwell, Nursery Rhymes (1845), and See also:Chambers 's Popular Rhymes (first printed 1841, reprinted in 187o). The recently collected See also:Morris Dances by Mr See also:Cecil See also:Sharp should also be consulted. One of the morris dances, See also:bean-setting, evidently dealing with planting or harvest, is danced in circle form, while others indicating fighting or rivalry are danced in line form, each line dancing in circle before See also:crossing over to the opposite side, and thus conforming to the See also:laws already shown to exist in the more ordinary game. (A. B. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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