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LADAKH AND BALTISTAN

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Originally appearing in Volume V16, Page 59 of the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica.
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LADAKH AND BALTISTAN , a See also:

province of See also:Kashmir, See also:India. The name Ladak, commonly but less correctly spelt Ladakh, and sometimes Ladag, belongs primarily to the broad valley of the upper See also:Indus in See also:West See also:Tibet, but includes several surrounding districts in See also:political connexion with it; the See also:present limits are between 750 40' and 8o° 30' E., and between 3z° 25' and 36° N. It is bounded N. by the Kuenlun range and the slopes of the Karakoram, N.W. and W. by the dependency of Baltistan or Little Tibet, S.W. by Kashmir proper, S. by See also:British Himalayan territory, and E. by the Tibetan provinces of Ngari and See also:Rudok. The whole region lies very high, the valleys of Rupshu in the See also:south-See also:east being 15,000 ft., and the Indus neat See also:Leh 11,000 ft., while the See also:average height of the surrounding ranges is 19,000 ft. The proportion of arable and even possible pasture See also:land to barren See also:rock and See also:gravel is very small. Pop., including Baltistan (1901) 165,992, of whom 30,216 in Ladakh proper are Buddhists, whereas the Baltis have adopted the Shiah See also:form of See also:Islam. The natural features of the See also:country may be best explained by reference to two native terms, under one or other of which every See also:part is included; viz. changtang, i.e. " See also:northern, or high See also:plain," where the amount of level ground is considerable, and rang, i.e. " deep valley," where the contrary See also:condition prevails. The former predominates in the east, diminishing gradually westwards. There, although the vast alluvial deposits which once filled the valley to a remarkably See also:uniform height of about 15,000 ft. have See also:left their traces on the See also:mountain sides, they have undergone immense denudation, and their debris now forms secondary deposits, See also:flat bottoms or shelving slopes, the only spots available for cultivation or pasture. These masses of See also:alluvium are often either metamorphosed to a subcrystalline rock still showing the See also:composition of the strata, or simply See also:con-sob dated by See also:lime.

See also:

Grand scenery is exceptional, for the valleys are confined, and from the higher points the view is generally of a confused See also:mass of See also:brown or yellow hills, absolutely barren, and of no See also:great apparent height. The See also:parallelism characteristic of the Himalayan ranges continues here, the direction being See also:north-west and south-east. A central range divides the Indus valley, here 4 to 8 m. wide, from that of its north See also:branch the Shyok, which with its fertile tributary valley of Nubra is again bounded on the north by the Karakora4n. This central See also:ridge is mostly syenitic See also:gneiss, and north-east from it are found, successively, See also:Silurian slates, Carboniferous shales and Triassic limestones, the gneiss recurring at the See also:Turkestan frontier. The Indus lies along the See also:line which separates the crystalline rocks from the See also:Eocene sandstones and shales of the See also:lower range of hills on the left See also:bank, the lofty mountains behind them consisting of parallel bands of rocks from Silurian to Cretaceous. Several lakes in the east districts at about 14,000 ft. have been of much greater extent, and connected with the See also:river systems of the country, but they are now mostly without outlet, saline, and in See also:process of See also:desiccation. Leh is the See also:capital of Ladakh, and the road to Leh from See also:Srinagar lies up the lovely See also:Sind valley to the See also:sources of the river at the Zoji La Pass (11,300 ft.) in the Zaskar range. This is the range which, skirting the See also:southern edge of the upland plains of Deosai in Baltistan, divides them from the valley of Kashmir, and then continues to See also:Nanga Parbat (26,620 ft.) and beyond that mountain stretches to the north of See also:Swat and See also:Bajour. To the south-east it is an unbroken See also:chain till it merges into the line of snowy peaks seen from See also:Simla and the plains of India—the range which reaches past Chini to the famous peaks of See also:Gangotri, Nandadevi and Nampa. It is the most central and conspicuous range in the See also:Himalaya. The Zoji La, which curves from the See also:head of the Sind valley on to the See also:bleak uplands of Dras (where lies the road to the trough of the Indus and Leh), is, in spite of its See also:altitude, a pass on which little See also:snow lies; but for See also:local accumulations, it would be open all the See also:year See also:round. It affords a typical instance of that cutting-back process by which a river-head may See also:erode a channel through a See also:watershed into the See also:plateau behind, there being no steep fall towards the Indus on the northern See also:side of the range.

From the Zoji La the road continues by easy gradients, following the line of the Dras drainage, to the Indus, when it turns up the valley to Leh. From Leh there are many routes into Tibet, the best known being that from the Indus valley to the Tibetan plateau, by the Chang La, to See also:

Lake Pangkong and Rudok (14,000 ft.). Rudok occupies a forward position on the western Tibetan border analogous to that of Leh in Kashmir. The See also:chief See also:trade route to See also:Lhasa from Leh, however, follows the line offered by the valleys of the Indus and the See also:Brahmaputra (or Tsanpo), See also:crossing the See also:divide between these See also:rivers north of Lake Manasarowar. The See also:observatory at Leh is the most elevated observatory in See also:Asia. " The- See also:atmosphere of the Indus valley is remarkably clear and transparent, and the See also:heat of the See also:sun is very great. There is generally a difference of more than 6o° between the See also:reading of the exposed sun thermometer in vacua and the See also:air temperature in the shade, and this difference has occasionally exceeded 90° . . . . The mean See also:annual temperature at Leh is 40°, that of the coldest months (See also:January and See also:February) only 18° and 19°, but it rises rapidly from February to See also:July, in which See also:month it reaches 62° with a mean diurnal maximum of 8o° both in that month and See also:August, and an average difference of 29° or 300 between the See also:early See also:morning and afternoon. The mean highest temperature of the year is 9o°, varying between 84° and 930 in the twelve years previous to 1893. On the other See also:hand, in the See also:winter the minimum thermometer falls occasionally below o°, and in 1878 reached as See also:low as 17° below zero. The extreme range of recorded temperature is therefore not less than I ro°.

The air is as dry as.See also:

Quetta, and rather more uniformly so... . The amount of See also:rain and snow is insignificant. The average rain (and snow) fall is only 2.7 in. in the year."1 The winds are generally See also:light, and depend on the local direction of the valleys. At Leh, which stands at the entrance of the valley leading to the Kardang Pass, the most See also:common directions are between south and west in the daytime and summer, and from north-east in the See also:night, especially in the later months of the year. In January and February the air is generally See also:calm, and See also:April and May are the most windy months of the year. Vegetation is confined to valleys and sheltered spots, where a stunted growth of See also:tamarisk and Myricaria, Hippophae and Elaeagnus, See also:furze, and the roots of burtsi, a salsolaceous plant, See also:supply the traveller with much-needed firewood. The trees are the See also:pencil See also:cedar (Juniperus excelsa), the See also:poplar and See also:willow (both extensively planted, the latter sometimes See also:wild), See also:apple, mulberry, See also:apricot and See also:walnut. See also:Irrigation is skilfully managed, the See also:principal products being See also:wheat, a beardless variety of See also:barley called grim, See also:millet, See also:buckwheat, See also:pease, beans and turnips. See also:Lucerne and prangos (an umbelliferous plant) are used as See also:fodder. Among domestic animals are the famous See also:shawl See also:goat, two kinds of See also:sheep, of which the larger (huniya) is used for carrying burdens, and is a principal source of See also:wealth, the See also:yak and the dso, a valuable hybrid between the yak and common cow Among wild animals are the kiang' or wild See also:ass, See also:ibex, several kinds of wild sheep, See also:antelope (Pantholops), See also:marmot, See also:hare and other Tibetan See also:fauna. The present value of the trade between British India and Tibet passing through Ladakh is inconsiderable Ladakh, however, is improving in its trade prospects apart from Tibet. It is curious that both Ladakh and Tibet import a considerable amount of treasure, for on the See also:borders of western Tibet and within a See also:radius of 100 or 200 M. of Leh there centres a See also:gold-See also:mining See also:industry which apparently only requires scientific development to render it enormously productive.

Here the See also:

surface See also:soil has been for many centuries washed for gold by bands of Tibetan miners, who never See also:work deeper than 20 to 50 ft., and whose methods of washing are of the crudest description. They work in winter, chiefly because of the binding See also:power of See also:frost on the friable soil, suffering great hardships and obtaining but a poor return for their labour. But the remoteness of Ladakh and its extreme altitude still continue to See also:bar the way to substantial progress, though its central position naturally entitles it to be a great trade mart. The adjoining territory of Baltistan forms the west extremity of Tibet, whose natural limits here are the Indus from its abrupt south-See also:ward See also:bend in 74° 45' E., and the mountains to the north and west, separating a comparatively peaceful Tibetan See also:population from the fiercer See also:Aryan tribes beyond. See also:Mahommedan writers about the 16th See also:century speak of Baltistan as " Little Tibet," and of Ladakh as " Great Tibet," thus ignoring the really Great Tibet altogether. The Balti See also:call See also:Gilgit " a Tibet," and Dr See also:Leitner says that the Chilasi call themselves Bot or Tibetans; but, although these districts may have been overrun by the Tibetans, or have received rulers of that See also:race, the ethnological frontier coincides with the See also:geographical one given. Baltistan is a mass of lofty mountains, the prevailing formation being gneiss. In the north is the Baltoro See also:glacier, the largest out of the See also:arctic regions, 35 M. See also:long, contained between two ridges whose highest peaks to the south are 25,000 and to the north 28,265 ft. The Indus, as in Lower Ladakh, runs in a narrow See also:gorge, widening for nearly 20 M. after receiving the Shyok. The capital, Skardu, a scattered collection of houses, stands here, perched on a rock 7250 ft. above the See also:sea. The See also:house See also:roofs are flat, occupied only in part by a second See also:story, the remaining space being devoted to drying apricots, the chief See also:staple of the See also:main valley, which supports little cultivation. But the rapid slope westwards is seen generally in the vegetation.

See also:

Birch, See also:plane, spruce and Pings excelsa appear; the fruits are finer, including See also:pomegranate, See also:pear, See also:peach, See also:vine and See also:melon, and where irrigation is available, as in the North Shigar, and at the deltas of the tributary valleys, the crops are more luxuriant and varied. See also:History.—The earliest novice of Ladakh is by the See also:Chinese See also:pilgrim Fa-hien, A.D. 400, who, travelling in See also:search of a purer 1 H. F. See also:Blandford, See also:Climate and See also:Weather of India (See also:London, 1889). faith, found See also:Buddhism flourishing there, the only novelty to him being the See also:prayer-See also:cylinder, the efficacy of which he declares is incredible. Ladakh formed part of the Tibetan See also:empire until its disruption in the See also:roth century, and since then has continued ecclesiastically' subject, and sometimes tributary, to Lhasa. Its inaccessibility saved it from any Mussulman invasion until 1531, when See also:Sultan Said of See also:Kashgar marched an See also:army across the Karakoram, one See also:division fighting its way into Kashmir and wintering there. Next year they invaded eastern Tibet, where nearly all perished from the effects of the climate. Early in the 17th century Ladakh was invaded by its Mahommedan neighbours of Baltistan, who plundered and destroyed the temples and monasteries; and again, in 1685–1688, by the Sokpa, who were expelled only by the aid of the See also:lieutenant of See also:Aurangzeb in Kashmir, Ladakh thereafter becoming tributary. The gyalpo or See also:king then made a nominal profession of Islam, and allowed a See also:mosque to be founded at Leh, and the Kashmiris have ever since addressed his successors by a Mahommedan See also:title. When the Sikhs took Kashmir, Ladakh, dreading their approach, offered See also:allegiance to Great See also:Britain.

It was, however, conquered and annexed in 1834–1841 by Gulab Singh of See also:

Jammu—the unwarlike Ladakhis, even with nature fighting on their side, and against indifferent generalship, being no match for the See also:Dogra troops. These next turned their arms successfully against the Baltis (who in the 18th century were subject to the See also:Mogul), and were then tempted to revive the claims of Ladakh to the Chinese provinces of Rudok and Ngari. This, however, brought down an army from Lhasa, and after a three days' fight the See also:Indian force was almost annihilated—chiefly indeed by See also:frostbite and other sufferings, for the See also:battle was fought in See also:mid-winter, 15,000 ft. above the sea. The Chinese then marched on Leh, but were soon driven out again, and See also:peace was finally made on the basis of the old frontier. The widespread See also:prestige of See also:China is illustrated by the fact that See also:tribute, though disguised as a present, is paid to her, for Ladakh, by the maharaja of Kashmir. The principal See also:works to be consulted are F. See also:Drew, The Jummoo and Kashmir Territories; See also:Cunningham, Ladak; See also:Major J. Biddulph, The Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh; See also:Ramsay, Western Tibet; See also:Godwin-See also:Austen, " The Mountain Systems of the Himalaya," vol. vi., Proc. R.G.S. (1884) ; W. See also:Lawrence, The Valley of Kashmir (1895) ; H. F.

Blandford, The Climate and Weather of India (1889). (T. H.

End of Article: LADAKH AND BALTISTAN

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