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ICELAND MOSS

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Originally appearing in Volume V14, Page 242 of the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica.
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ICELAND See also:MOSS , a See also:lichen (Cetraria islandica) whose erect or ascending foliaceous See also:habit gives it something of the See also:appearance of a moss, whence probably the name. It is often of a See also:pale See also:chestnut See also:colour, but varies considerably, being sometimes almost entirely greyish See also:white; and grows to a height of from 3 to 4 in., the branches being channelled or rolled into tubes, which terminate in flattened lobes with fringed edges. It grows abundantly in the mountainous regions of See also:northern countries, and it is specially characteristic of the See also:lava slopes and plains of the See also:west and See also:north of Iceland. It is found on the mountains of north See also:Wales, north See also:England, See also:Scotland and See also:south-west See also:Ireland. As met with in See also:commerce it is a See also:light-See also:grey harsh cartilaginous See also:body, almost destitute of colour, and having a slightly See also:bitter See also:taste. It contains about 70% of lichenin or lichen-See also:starch, a body isomeric with See also:common starch, but wanting any appearance of structure. It also yields a See also:peculiar modification of See also:chlorophyll, called thallochlor, fumaric See also:acid, lichenostearic acid and cetraric acid, to which last it owes its bitter taste. It forms a nutritious and easily digested amylaceous See also:food, being used in See also:place of starch in some preparations of See also:cocoa. It is not, however, in See also:great See also:request, and even in Iceland it is only habitually resorted to in seasons of scarcity. Cetraric acid or cetrarin, a white micro-crystalline See also:powder with a bitter taste, is readily soluble in See also:alcohol, and slightly soluble in See also:water and See also:ether. It has been recommended for medicinal use, in doses of 2 to 4 grains, as a hitter tonic and aperient. See also:ICE-PLANT, the popular name for Mesembryanthemum crystallinum, a See also:hardy See also:annual most effective for rockwork.

It is a See also:

low-growing spreading herbaceous plant with the fleshy See also:stem and leaves covered with large glittering papillae which give it the appearance of being coated with ice. It is a dry-See also:country plant,a native of See also:Greece and other parts of the Mediterranean region, the See also:Canary Islands, South See also:Africa and See also:California. Mesembryanthemum is a large genus (containing about 300 See also:species) of erect or prostrate fleshy herbs or low shrubs, mostly natives of South Africa, and rarely hardy in the See also:British Isles where they are mostly grown as greenhouse See also:plants. They See also:bear conspicuous white, yellow or red See also:flowers with many petals inserted in the calyx-See also:tube. The thick fleshy leaves are very variable in shape, and often have spiny rigid hairs on the margin. They are essentially See also:sun-loving plants. The best-known member of the genus is M. cordifolium, See also:var. variegatum, with See also:heart-shapedgreen and silvery leaves and See also:bright rosy-See also:purple flowers. It is extensively used for edging See also:flower-beds and See also:borders during the summer months. ICE-See also:YACHTING, the See also:sport of sailing and racing ice-boats. It is practised in Great See also:Britain, See also:Norway and See also:Sweden, to some extent, and is very popular in See also:Holland and on the Gulf of See also:Finland, but its highest development is in the See also:United States and See also:Canada. The Dutch ice-yacht is a See also:flat-bottomed See also:boat resting crossways upon a planking about three feet wide and sixteen See also:long, to which are affixed four See also:steel runners, one each at See also:bow, stern and each end of the planking. The See also:rudder is a fifth runner fixed to a tiller.

Heavy mainsails and jibs are generally used and the boat is built more for safety than for See also:

speed. The ice-boat of the Gulf of Finland is a V-shaped See also:frame with a heavy See also:plank See also:running from bow to stern, in which the See also:mast is stepped. The stern or steering runner is worked by a tiller or See also:wheel. The See also:sail is a large See also:lug and the See also:boom and gaff are attached to the mast by travellers. The passengers sit upon planks or rope netting. The See also:Russian boats are faster than the Dutch. In 1790 ice-yachting was in See also:vogue on the See also:Hudson See also:river, its headquarters being at See also:Poughkeepsie, New See also:York. The type was a square See also:box on three runners, the two forward ones being nailed to the box and the third acting as a rudder operated by a tiller. The sail was a flatheaded sprit. This See also:primitive See also:style generally obtained until 18J3, when triangular frames with " boxes " for the See also:crew aft and jib and mainsail rig were introduced. A heavy, hard-See also:riding type soon See also:developed, with See also:short gaffs, low sails, large jibs and booms extending far over the stern. It was over-canvassed and the mast was stepped directly over the runner-plank, bringing the centre of sail-See also:balance so far aft that the boats were See also:apt to run away, and the over-canvassing frequently caused the windward runner to See also:swing up into the See also:air to a dangerous height.

The largest and fastest example of this type, which prevailed until 1879, was See also:

Commodore J. A. See also:Roosevelt's first " Icicle," which measured 69 ft. over all and carried 1070 sq. ft. of See also:canvas. In 1879 Mr H. Relyea built the " See also:Robert See also:Scott, " which had a single backbone and See also:wire See also:guy-See also:ropes, and it became the See also:model for all Hudson river ice-yachts. Masts were now stepped farther forward, jibs were shortened, booms cut down, and the centre of sail-balance was brought more inboard and higher up, causing the centres of effort and resistance to come more in See also:harmony. The shallow steering-box became elliptical. In 1881 occurred the first See also:race for the See also:American See also:Challenge See also:Pennant,which represents the championship of the Hudson river, the clubs competing including the Hudson river, North Shrews-See also:bury, See also:Orange See also:lake, See also:Newburgh and See also:Carthage Ice-Yacht Clubs. The races are usually sailed five times See also:round a triangle of which each See also:leg See also:measures one mile, at least two of the legs being to windward. Ice-yachts are divided into four classes, carrying respectively 600 sq. ft. of canvas or more, between 450 and 600, between 309 and 450, and less than 300 sq. ft. Ice-yachting is very popular on the Great Lakes, both in the United States and Canada, the See also:Kingston (See also:Ontario) See also:Club having a See also:fleet of over 25 sail. Other important centres of the sport are Lakes Minnetonka and White Bear in See also:Minnesota, Lakes See also:Winnebago and Pepin in See also:Wisconsin, See also:Bar Harbor lake in See also:Maine, the St See also:Lawrence river, Quinte See also:Bay and Lake See also:Champlain.

A See also:

modern ice-yacht is made of a single-piece backbone the entire length of the boat, and a runner-plank upon which it rests at right angles, the two forming a See also:kite-shaped frame. The best See also:woods for these pieces are basswood, butternut and See also:pine. They are cut from the See also:log in such a way that the heart of the See also:timber expands, giving the planks a permanent See also:curve, which, in the finished boat, is turned upward. The two forward runners, usually made of soft See also:cast See also:iron and about 2 ft. 7 in. long and 22 in. high, are set into See also:oak frames a little over 5 ft. long and 5 in. high. The runners have a cutting edge of 90%, though a V-shaped edge is often preferred for racing. The rudder is a runner about 3 ft. 7 in. long, worked by a tiller, sometimes made very long, 72 ft. not being uncommon. This enables the helms-See also:man to See also:lie in the box at full length and See also:steer with his feet, leaving his hands See also:free to tend the_sheet. Masts and spars are generally made hollow for racing-yachts and the See also:rigging is pliable steel wire. The sails are of io-oz. See also:duck for a boat carrying 400 sq. ft. of canvas. They have very high peaks, short hoists and long booms.

The mainsail and jib rig is See also:

general, but a See also:double-masted See also:lateen rig has been found advantageous. The foremost ice-yacht builder of See also:America is G. E. Buckhout of Poughkeepsie. An ice-yacht about 40 ft. in length will carry 6 or 7 passengers or crew, who are distributed in such a manner as to preserve the balance of the boat. In a See also:good See also:breeze the crew lie out on the windward See also:side of the runner-plank to balance the boat .and reduce the pressure on the, leeward runner. A course of 20 M. with many turns has been sailed on the Hudson in less than 48 minutes, the See also:record for a measured mile with flying start being at the See also:rate of about 72 M. an See also:hour. In a high See also:wind, however, ice-yachts often move at the rate of 85 and even 90 m. an hour. Several of the See also:laws of ice See also:navigation seem. marvellous to the uninitiated. Commodore See also:Irving See also:Grinnell, who has made a scientific study of the sport, says: " The two marked peculiarities of ice-yachting which cause it to differ materially from yachting on the See also:sea are: (I) Sailing faster than the wind. (2) Sheets flat aft under all circumstances." Mr H. A.

See also:

Buck, in the " See also:Badminton Library," See also:Skating, See also:Curling, See also:Tobogganing, &c., thus explains these paradoxes. An ice-boat sails faster than the wind because she invariably sails at some See also:angle to it. The momentum is increased by every puff of wind striking the sails obliquely, until it is finally equalled by the increase of See also:friction engendered. Thus the continued bursts of wind against the sails cause a greater See also:accumulation of speed in the ice-yacht than is possessed by the wind itself. When the boat sails directly before the wind she is, like a See also:balloon, at its See also:mercy, and thus does not sail faster than the wind. The ice-yacht always sails with its sheets flat aft, because the greater speed of the boat changes the angle at which the wind strikes the sail from that at which it would strike if the yacht were stationary to such a degree that, in whatever direction the yacht is sailing, the result is always the same as if the yacht were See also:close-hauled to the wind. It follows that the yacht is actually overhauling the wind, and her canvas shivers as if in the wind's See also:eye. When eased off her momentum becomes less and less until it drops to the velocity of the wind, when she can readily be stopped by being spun round and brought See also:head to the wind. The latter method is one way of " coming to," instead of lulling up in the usual way from a See also:beam wind. In beating to windward an ice-boat is handled like a water yacht, though she points more closely. On the bays near New York a peculiar See also:kind of ice-boat has developed, called scooter, which may be described as a toboggan with a sail. A typical scooter is about 15 ft. long with an extreme beam of 5 ft., perfectly See also:oval in See also:form and flat.

It has mainsail and jib carried on a mast 9 or 10 ft. long and set well aft, and is provided with two long parallel See also:

metal runners. There is no rudder, the scooter being steered entirely by trimming the sails, particularly the jib. As the See also:craft is flat and buoyant it sails well in water, and can thus be used on very thin ice without danger. A speed of 5o m. an hour has been attained by a scooter (see Outing for See also:March 1905). See Ice See also:Sports, in the " Isthmian Library "; Skating, Curling, Tobogganing, &c. in the " Badminton Library." I-CH'ANG (Y1-cn'ANG, anciently known as Yi-See also:ling), a See also:town of See also:China in the See also:province of Hu-peh, one of the four ports opened to See also:foreign See also:trade by treaty in 1877. It is situated in 300 42' N. and (approximately) 20' E., on the Yangtsze-Kiang, woo m. from See also:Shanghai. Built on the See also:left See also:bank of the river where it escapes from the ravines and See also:gorges which for 350 M. have imprisoned its channel, I-ch'ang is exposed to considerable See also:risk of floods; in 187o the See also:waters See also:rose 20 ft. in one See also:day, and the town had many of its houses and about See also:half of its See also:wall swept away. The first See also:English vessels to ascend the river as far as I-ch'ang were those of See also:Admiral See also:Sir See also:James See also:Hope's expedition in 1861. All See also:cargo to or from Szech'uen is here transhippedfrom steamer to See also:junk, or See also:vice versa. About ro m. above I-ch'ang the famed scenery of the Yangtsze gorges begins. Through these the great river runs in a See also:series of rapids, which make navigation by vessels of any See also:size extremely difficult. A very large trade, nevertheless, is carried on by this route between Chungk'See also:ing and I-ch'ang.

As a See also:

local centre of See also:distribution this See also:port is of no great consequence, the transhipment trade with Szech'uen being almost its See also:sole business. The See also:population is estimated at 35,000. The number of foreign residents is very small, trade being carried on by See also:Chinese agents. Before the See also:anti-See also:opium See also:campaign of 1906 (see CHINA) opium was much grown. The trade of the port amounted in 1899 to j 531,229, and in 1904 to £424,442, the See also:principal import being See also:cotton See also:yarn and the principal export opium.

End of Article: ICELAND MOSS

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