WINNEBAGO . Siouan. 1070 in See also:

• NEBRASKA

Stale His!. See also:

• SOC

See also:

• REP, REPP, or REPS

Zuflian. of whnes. Rep. Ontario, 1905, and See also:

• WYANDOT

Assoc., 1906. Writings of I'etitot, Morice, &c. Peti- tot, Amour du See also:

• GRAND

But under better care and more favourable conditions generally some tribes seem to be taking on a new See also:

• LEASE (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. laxare, to loosen)

Rep. Dept. Ind. Alf., 1907) for 1907 is given as 110,345, as compared with 109,394 for the previous See also:

• YEAR

Ontario . $7,566,125 $1,426,690 Quebec 1,781,330 915,783 N. Brunswick . 189,701 109,892 N. See also:

• SCOTIA (Gr. o'Karca, shadow or darkness)

7,721,532 548,533 See also:

• ALBERTA

Amer. Inds. N. of Mex., istics. 1907, pt. i. p. 53), See also:

• SEPARATE

Very notable is the percentage of tall statures among the Cheyenne, Creek, Crow, Iroquois, &c. The form of the head (See also:

• SKULL

Shufeldt and Dr A. Hrdlicka (Boas Anniv. Vol., New See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

In parts of New Brunswick, Quebec, Ontario, some of the See also:

• NORTHERN

In thg case of some tribes there have been " pure blood " and " mixed blood " factions. Some tribes have frowned upon See also:

• MISCEGENATION (from Lat. miscere, to mix, and genus, race)

Several Indians, some full-blood, others with more or less white blood in their veins, have rendered See also:

• SIGNAL

Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1900, pp. 232-234), " in all the See also:

• SOUTHERN

T. See also:

• MASON, FRANCIS (1799—1874)
• MASON, GEORGE (1725—1792)
• MASON, GEORGE HEMMING (1818–1872)
• MASON, JAMES MURRAY (1798-1871)
• MASON, JOHN (1586-1635)
• MASON, JOHN YOUNG (1799-1859)
• MASON, LOWELL (1792—1872)
• MASON, SIR JOHN (1503–1566)
• MASON, SIR JOSIAH (1795-1881)
• MASON, WILLIAM (1725—1797)

The culture of the Great Plains, which has been studied by Drs Wissler (Congr. intern. d. Amer., Quebec, 1906, vol. ii. pp. 39-52) and Kroeber (ibid. pp. 53-63), is marked by the presence of a decided uniformity in spite of the existence within this See also:

• AREA

In this area also, toward the west, are to be met religious ideas and institutions (e.g. among the See also:

• NATCHEZ

Publ. Amer. Arch. and Ethnol. vol. ii., 1904, pp. 81-103) distinguishes at least four types of native culture. On account of See also:

• CLIMATIC

A great variety of traps, snares, &c., was used (see Mason in Amer. Anthrop., 1899) and the dog was also of great service with certain tribes, although no special variety of hunting-See also:

• DOGS, ISLE OF

(See also:

• STUTTGART

Since the appearance of See also:

• MORGAN
• MORGAN, DANIEL (1736-1802)
• MORGAN, EDWIN DENNISON (1811-1883)
• MORGAN, JOHN HUNT (1825-1864)
• MORGAN, JOHN PIERPONT (1837–1913)
• MORGAN, LEWIS HENRY (1818-1881)
• MORGAN, SYDNEY, LADY (c. 1783-1859)
• MORGAN, THOMAS (d. 1743)

The art of See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

In See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

The pottery of the Iroquoian and Algonkian tribes of the north-east was, as a See also:

• RULE

In the Arctic regions bird-skins with the feathers on were used to make dresses; the Algonkian tribes of Virginia, &c., had their bird-skin " blankets " and " See also:

• TURKEY

Some Indian tribes (e.g. the Kootenay) seem not at all given to pictography, while many others have practised it to an almost limitless extent. The pictography and picture-See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

The See also:

• MUSIC

The musical instruments known to the aborigines north of Mexico, before contact with the whites, according to Miss Fletcher (Handb. of Amer. Inds., 1907, pt.i. p. 960), were drums of great variety in See also:

• SIZE

Assoc. Adv. Sci. vol. Iii., 1903, pp. 495-500) and Dr See also:

• RICHARD
• RICHARD (d. 1184)
• RICHARD, FRANCOIS MARIE BENJAMIN (18,9-1908)
• RICHARD, HENRY (1812-1888)
• RICHARD, ST

321-344) of the See also:

• NEEDLE (O. Eng. ncedl; the word appears in various forms in Teutonic languages, Ger. Nadel, Dutch naal, the root being ne-, to sew, cf. Ger. nahen, and probably Lat. nere, to spin, Gr. vi)ats, spinning)

This theory rests largely upon resemblances in arts (clubs, masks and the like in particular), See also:

• TATTOOING (Tahitian, tatu, from ta, mark)

More recently (1907) Dr F. G. Speck, in a discussion of the aboriginal culture of the south-eastern states (Amer. Anthrop. vol. ix., n.s., pp. 287-295), cites as proof of Antillean or Caribbean influence in addition to that indicated by Holmes, the following: employment of the blow-gun in hunting, use of See also:

• HAMMOCK

That the repousse work was not beyond the skill of the Indian was shown by Cushing in his study of " Primitive Copper Working " (Amer. Anthrop. vol. vii. pp. 93-117), who did not consider the resemblance of these mound-specimens to the art of Mexico proof of extra-North American origin. Holmes (Handb. of Inds. N. of Mex., 1907, pt. i. p. 343) points out that the great mass of the copper of mounds came from the region of Lake Superior, and that had extensive intercourse between Mexico or Central America and the mound-country existed, or colonies from those southern parts been present in the area in question, artifacts of undoubtedly Mexican origin would have been found in the mounds in considerable abundance, and methods of manipulation peculiar to the south would have been much in evidence. The facts indicate at most some See also:

• EXOTIC (Gr. EWTIK6s, foreign, from few, outside)

51) that " it is not improbable that both Mexican and Pueblos cultures originated in a region in northern Mexico, developing as environment permitted in its northern and southern homes." Unfavourable milieu in the north prevented the culture of the Pueblos Indians and the Cliff-dwellers, their ancestors, reaching the height attained in Mexico and Central America, represented by See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

In the far west the Yuman family of languages belongs on both sides of the border. In the popular mind the religion of the North American Indian consists practically of belief in the " Great Spirit " and the " Happy Hunting Grounds." But while some tribes, e.g. of the Iroquoian and Caddoan stocks Revgioe, appear to have come reasonably near a pantheistic $cMy, thology, a conception tending toward See also:

• MONISM (from Gr. µ6vos, alone)

He often figures in the great See also:

• DELUGE, THE (through the Fr. from Lat. diluvium, flood, diluere, to wash away)

Thus, e.g. as Hewitt notes (Handbook of Amer. Inds., 1907, pt. i. p. 970), while with the Iroquoian and eastern Algonkian tribes " the See also:

• THUNDER

Walter Fewkes (and briefly in the Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1905), a system of religious ceremonials and sympathetic magic, the See also:

• OBJECT

Ethnol., 1899-1900, pp. 127-339). In the creation-myths several instances of European influence are pointed out. Mother-earth and her life are the source, by transformation and See also:

• EVOLUTION

In the mythology and religion of the Algonkian tribes (particularly the Chippewa, &c.) is expressed " a See also:

• FIRM

Amer. Folk-Lore, 1904, pp. 1-13). The characteristic feature of Eskimo folk-lore is the hero-tales, treating of visits to fabulous tribes, en-counters with monsters, quarrels and " wars," See also:

• SHAMANISM

The Hupa, an Athabaskan people of California, are reported by Goddard as possessing a deep religious sense. But the most remarkable mythology of any Athabaskan tribe is that of the Navaho, which has been studied in detail under some of its chief aspects by Dr Washington Matthews in his valuable monographs, Navaho Legends (1897) and The Night See also:

• CHANT (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. cantare, to sing; an old form is " chaunt ")

Wovoka's See also:

• DOCTRINE

Rep. Bur. Ethnol. pp. 143-300); for the " Medicine-men of the Apache " by Bourke (Ninth Ann. Rep. pp. 443-603) and for those of the Cherokee by Mooney (Seventh Ann. Rep. pp. 301-397), while a number of the chief facts concerning American Indian shamans in general have been gathered in a recent article by Dr R. B. Dixon (Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1908, pp.

1-12). In various parts of the continent and among diverse tribes the shaman exercises functions as " healer, sorcerer, seer, priest and educator." These functions among the tribes of lower culture are generally exercised by one and the same individual, but, with rise in civilization, the healer-sorcerer and shaman-sorcerer disappear or wane in power and influence as the true priest develops. The priestly character of the shaman appears among the Plains tribes in connexion with the custody of the " sacred bundles " and the keeping of the ceremonial myths, &c., but is more marked among the Pueblos, Navaho, &c., of the south-west, while " a considerable development of the priestly function may also be seen among the Muskogi, particularly in the case of the Natchez, with their remarkable cult and so-called temple." The reverent character of the best " priests " or shamans among the Pawnee and Omaha has been emphasized by Miss A. C. Fletcher and Francis la Flesche. The class-organization of the shamans reaches its acme in the mide societies of the Chippewa and the priest-societies of the Pueblos Indians (Moqui, Zuni, &c.). The games of the American aborigines north of Mexico have been made the subject of a detailed monograph by Culin, " Games of the North American Indians " (Twenty- Games See also:

• FOURTH

The type known as " See also:

• DICE (plural of die, O. Fr. de, derived from Lat. dare, to give)

N. B. Hewitt, himself an Iroquois, offers reasons (Amer. Anthrop., 1892) for believing that the correct date of its See also:

• FOUNDING (from Lat. fundere, to pour)

The federal council was composed of the federal chiefs of the several component tribes; the tribal council consisted of the federal chiefs and sub-chiefs of the tribe." The greatest development of the power of the chief and his See also:

• TENURE (Fr. tenure, from Lat. tenere, to hold)

With many tribes, however, the husband could divorce his wife at will, but Farrand and Lowie in their discussion of Indian marriage (Handb. of Amer. Inds., 1907, pt. i. p. 809) report on the other hand the curious fact that among the Wintun of California " men seldom expel their wives, but slink away from home, leaving their families behind." In the case of divorce, the children generally go with the mother. From a survey of the available data Lowie and Farrand conclude that " monogamy is thus found to be the prevalent form of marriage throughout the continent," varied from to See also:

• POLYGAMY, (Gr. nabs, many, and yayos, marriage)

Anthrop., 1899). Names marked epochs in life and changed with new achievements, and they had often " so personal and sacred a meaning," that they were naturally enough rendered " unfit for the See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

303), the See also:

• PRIMARY

Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1895, 1896; Journ. Anthr. Inst., 1898) has shown the appreciation of the individual in the lonely " totem " See also:

• VIGIL (Lat. vigilia, "watch ")

Hist. Assoc., 1893), conditioned to a certain extent the development of civilization in North America. Had there been no aborigines here, the white race might have swarmed quickly over the whole continent, and the " typical " American would now be much different from what he is. The fact that the Indians were here in sufficient numbers to resist a too rapid advance on the part of the European settlers made necessary the numerous frontiers (really " successive Americas "), which began with Quebec, Virginia and Massachusetts and ended with California, Oregon, British Columbia, Yukon and Alaska. The Indians again are no exception to the rule that one of the fundamentally important contributions of a primitive people to the culture-factors in the life of the race dispossessing them consists of the trails and camping-places, water-ways and See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

Hulbert (Historic Highways of America, New York, 1902-1905). It was over these old trails and through these water-ways that missionary, soldier, adventurer, trader, trapper, See also:

• HUNTER, JOHN (1728-1793)
• HUNTER, ROBERT MERCER TALIAFERRO (r8o9-1887)
• HUNTER, SIR WILLIAM WILSON (1840-19oo)
• HUNTER, WILLIAM (1718–1783)
• HUNTER, WILLIAM ALEXANDER (1844-1898)

The early French fur companies, the Hudson's Bay Company, the North-West Company, the American Fur Company, the Missouri Fur Company, the Russian-American Company, the Alaska Commercial Company, &c., long stood with the Indians for the culture of the white man. For two centuries, indeed, the Hudson's Bay Company was ruler of a large portion of what is now the Dominion of Canada, and its trading-posts still dot the Indian country in the far north-west. The mingling of races in the region beyond the Great Lakes is largely due to the fact that the trading and fur companies brought thither employes and dependants, of French, Scottish and English stock, who intermarried more or less readily with the native population, thus producing the mixed-blood element which has played an important role in the development of the American north-west. The fur trade was a valuable source of See also:

• REVENUE
• REVENUE (0. Fr. revenu, from revenir, to return)

Anthrop. Inst., 1879). French influence in Canada and Acadia began early and was very marked, affecting the languages (several Algonkian dialects have numerous loan-words, as have the Iroquois See also:

• TONGUES, GIFT OF, or GLOSSOLALIA (yXwova, tongue, aXeiv, speak)

The English influence on tribal government and land-tenure, culminating in the See also:

• INCORPORATION (from Lat. incorporare, to form into a body)

Hudson's harsh treatment of the natives caused the Dutch trouble later on. Through their trading-post of Fort See also:

• ORANGE
• ORANGE (Citrus Aurantium)
• ORANGE, HOUSE OF

The results of Spanish contact and control are seen in the loan-words in the various languages of the region, the consequences of the introduction of domestic animals (horse, See also:

• MULE (Lat. mulus)

The contact between the races in North America has had its darker side, seen in the numerous conflicts and " wars " that have marked the conquest of the continent by the whites and the resistance of the weaker Indian people wars. to the inevitable See also:

• TRIUMPH (triumphus)

The struggle ended in the See also:

• CAMPAIGN

From the founding of See also:

• JAMESTOWN

The Kickapoos were concerned in the Indian plot to destroy the fort at Detroit in 1712, and a hundred years later they aided the English against the Americans; in 1832 numbers of them helped Black See also:

• HAWK (O. Eng. hafoc or heafoc, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch havik, Ger. Habicht; the root is hab-, haf-, to hold, cf. Lat. accipiter, from capere)

The Apache from the See also:

• MIDDLE

Californian Stocks.—Such " wars " as are recorded, for the most part between the minor Californian stocks and the whites, have been largely directly or indirectly instigated by the latter for various purposes of gain. The Lutuamian stock is remarkable as furnishing both the Klamath, who have always kept peace with the whites, and the See also:

• MODOC (i.e. " southerners ")

Trouble with the See also:

• BANNOCK
• BANNOCK (adapted from the Gaelic, and apparently connected with Lat. panic, bread)

The most notable event of this " war " was the so-called " massacre " (properly cutting-off) of General See also:

• CUSTER, GEORGE ARMSTRONG (1839-1876)

For this the Spaniards subsequently took ample vengeance. The Pueblos Indians in general have never taken too kindly to the whites; and to-day at the Moqui See also:

• PUEBLO

1907, pp. 874-909). Besides the famous Relation des Jesatites (ed. Thwaites, 1896–igo1.) there are now special mission histories for the See also:

• BAPTISTS

The history of missionary labours in North America among the aborigines contains stories of disappointment and disaster as well as See also:

• CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF

Inds. pt, i., 1907, p. 895), " Despite regular life, abundance of food and proper clothing according to the See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

The mission among the Mohawks of New York was established in 1642 by Father See also:

• JOGUES, ISAAC (2607-2646)

The Methodist missions among the Ontario Iroquois date from 182o. Of the " Six Nations " Indians of the Grand river, Ontario, the Cayuga and Onondaga are still " See also:

• PAGAN
• PAGAN (Lat. paganus, of or belonging to a pagus, a canton, county district, village, commune)

After the removal of the Indians to the Indian Territory more missions were established among the Choctaw, the Creek and the Seminole, &c. The work was much interfered with by the See also:

• CIVIL

When in 1900 the withdrawal by the United States of government aid to denominational schools occurred, it compelled some of the weaker churches to give up such work altogether, and interfered much with the activities of some of the stronger ones. According to the See also:

• STATISTICS

See also:

• DARTMOUTH
• DARTMOUTH, EARL OF

Appeals to the feelings of See also:

• PRIDE, THOMAS (d. 1658)

M. See also:

• BEAUCHAMP
• BEAUCHAMP, ALPHONSE DE

See also:

• PRATT, ORSON (1811–1881)

The Hampton Institute was established in 1868 by General S. C. See also:

• ARMSTRONG, ARCHIBALD (d. 1672)
• ARMSTRONG, JOHN (1709-1779)
• ARMSTRONG, JOHN (1758—1843)
• ARMSTRONG, SAMUEL CHAPMAN (1839—1893)
• ARMSTRONG, WILLIAM GEORGE ARMSTRONG, BARON (1810—1900)

Ten boys are working in See also:

• MACHINE
• MACHINE (through Fr. from Lat. form machina of Gr. µnxavil)

Latterly some departure from this policy has occurred, following a decision of the Supreme Court. In less than a century the expenditure for Indian education increased from an See also:

• ANNUAL

One way of judging of the intellectual character of the various stocks of North American aborigines is from the " great men " they have produced during the historical periods of contact with the whites. Many of these stocks have, of course, not had occasion for the development of great men, their small numbers, their isolation, their lack of historical experience, their long See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

Of these may be mentioned: Hiawatha, statesman and reformer (fl. c. 1450), the chief mover in the formation of the great " League of the Iroquois "; Captain Joseph Brant; " Red jacket "; Oronhyatekha (d. 1906), the head of the Independent Order of Foresters, an important secret charitable society, a physician, and a man of remarkable power as an organizer. 4. Sahaptian.—A remarkable Indian character was Nez Pere-6 Joseph, the leader of his people in the troubles of 1877. In 1905, at the general assembly of the Presbyterian Church, a delegate representing both whites and Indians was See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

Curiously enough, some of the tribes at one time considered lowest in point of general intellectual equipment have shown not a little of this ability, and there is a marked difference in this respect between tribes belonging to one and the same stock. The Athabaskan stock e.g. shows such variations, or rather perhaps this stock in general exhibits a tendency to adopt the culture of other peoples, thus some of the Athabaskan tribes in Alaska have acquired elements of culture from the Eskimo; the Takulli have been influenced by the Tsimshian, and Nahane by the Tlingit, the See also:

• CHILCOTIN

The Algonkian, Iroquoian and Muskogian stocks, both in the case of individuals and in the case of whole tribes (or their remnants), have exhibited great ability in the directions indicated. Of the Ca,ldoan stock the Pawnees seem gifted with considerable native ability expressing itself particularly in the matter of religion (the Hupas, of the Athabaskan stock, seem also to have " a religious sense "). Some tribes of the Siouan stock have, both in the case of individuals and as peoples, given evidence of marked intelligence, especially in relation to psychic phenomena and the treatment of adolescent youth. In their culture, their ceremonies and ritual proceedings, as well as in their material arts, the Pueblos Indians of the south-western United States show, in many ways, their mental kinship with the creators and sustainers of the civilization of ancient Mexico and Central America. From the table of Indian tribes it will be seen that aborigines of the most diverse stocks have shown themselves capable of assimilating white culture and of adapting them-selves to the new set of circumstances. Progress and improvement are not at all confined to any one stock. A very interesting fact in the history of the education of the aborigines north of Mexico is the success of the attempt to spin - enable them to read and write their own language barks. by means of specially prepared syllabaries, " See also:

• ALPHA

But the most remarkable of all these syllabaries is one more of Indian than missionary origin, in its application at least, the well-known " Cherokee alphabet " of Sequoyah, an uneducated Cherokee half-blood, who got part of his idea from an old spelling-book though his characters did not at all correspond to English sounds—at first 82, later 86 syllables were represented. Invented about 1821 the Cherokee alphabet " was first used for printing in 1827, and has been in See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

The creation of a " literary " class among so many Indian tribes within a comparatively brief period is certainly a very interesting result, and one which gives evidence of native intelligence among children and adults alike (Amer. Journ. Psychol., 1905). For a general list of authorities on the American aborigines, see bibliography under AMERICA, See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)