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SPANGENBERG, AUGUST GOTTLIEB (1704–1192)
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See also:SPANGENBERG, See also:AUGUST GOTTLIEB (1704–1192) , See also:Count See also:Zinzendorf's successor, and See also:bishop of the Moravian Brethren, was See also:born on the 15th of See also:July 1704 at Klettenberg, on the See also:south of the Harz Mountains, where his See also:father, Georg Spangenberg, was See also:court preacher and ecclesiastical inspector of the courtship of See also:Hohenstein. See also:Left an See also:orphan at the See also:early See also:age of thirteen, he was sent to the gymnasium at Ilefeld, and passed thence (1722), in poorest circumstances, to the university of See also:Jena to study See also:law. See also:Professor Johann See also:Franz See also:Buddeus (1667–1729) received him into his See also:family, and a " stipendium " was procured for him. He soon abandoned law for See also:theology: took his degree in 1726, and began to give See also:free lectures on theology. He also took an active See also:part in a religious See also:union of students, in the support of the free See also:schools for poor See also:children established by them in the suburbs of Jena, and in the training of teachers. In 1728 Count Zinzendorf visited Jena, and Spangenberg made his acquaintance; in 1730 he visited the Moravian See also:colony at See also:Herrnhut. A " collegium pastorale practicum " for the care of the sick and poor was in consequence founded by him at Jena, which the authorities at once See also:broke up as a " Zinzendorfian institution." But Spangenberg's relations with the Moravians were confirmed by several visits to the colony, and the See also:accident of an unfavourable See also:appeal to the See also:lot alone prevented his See also:appointment as See also:chief See also:elder of the community, See also: He was offered by the See also:senate of the theological See also:faculty of Halle the alternative of doing See also:penance before See also:God, submitting to his superiors, and separating himself from Zinzendorf, or leaving the See also:matter. to the decision of the See also: All operations were thus near at See also:hand, Havana, the real See also:objective in Cuba, being only about Too m. from Key West. A See also:political See also:reason for confining action to the western Atlantic was that an immediate attack upon the coasts of Spain might have aroused the strongly See also:pro-Spanish sympathy of See also:continental See also:Europe into greater activity. The See also:regular United States See also:army, the only available force until war was declared and a volunteer force was authorized, had been assembled at I ampa, Florida, New See also: The second thirty years of his work (1762-1792) were devoted to the consolidation of the See also:German Moravian Church. Zinzendorf's See also:death (176o) had left See also:room and need for his labours at home. At Herrnhut there were conflicting tendencies, doctrinal and practical extravagances, and the organization of the brethren was very defective. In 1777 Spangenberg was commissioned to draw up an See also:idea fidei fratrum, or compendium of the See also:Christian faith of the United Brethren, which became the accepted declaration of the Moravian belief. As compared with Zinzendorf's own writings, this See also:book exhibits the finer See also:balance and greater moderation of Spangenberg's nature, while those offensive descriptions of the relation of the sinner to See also:Christ in which the Moravians at first indulged are almost absent from it. In his last years Spangenberg devoted special See also:attention to the See also:education of the See also:young, in which the Moravians have since been so successful.' He died at Berthelsdorf, on the 18th of September 1792. In addition to the Idea fidei fratrum, Spangenberg wrote, besides other apologetic books, a Declaration fiber See also:die seither gegen uns ausgegangenen Beschuldigungen sonderlich die See also:Person unseres Ordinarius (Zinzendorf) betreffend (See also:Leipzig, 1751), an Apologetische Schlassschrift (1752), Leben See also:des Grafen Zinzendorf (1772-1775); and his See also:hymns are well known beyond the Moravian circle. In addition to his autobiography (Selbstbiographie), see J. Risler, Leben Spangenbergs (See also:Barby, 1794) ; K. F. Ledderhose, Das Leben Spangenbergs (See also:Heidelberg, 1846) ; See also:Otto Frick, Beitrage zur Lebensgeschuhte A. G. Spangenbergs (Halle, 1884) ; See also:Gerhard Reichel's See also:article in See also:Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopadie (ed. 1906), s.v. " Spangenberg "; the article by Ledderhose, in the Allgemeine deutsche Biographie; also MORAVIAN B BETH REN. SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR OF 1898. For the causes leading up to the war see CUBA and UNITED STATES: See also:History. On the 15th of See also:February 1898 the U.S. battleship " Maine," which had been sent to Havana on the 25th of January, was destroyed in Havana See also:harbour by an See also:explosion, with a loss of 266 lives. An American See also:board of inquiry, of which Captain W. T. Sampson was See also:president, made an extensive examination of the See also:wreck, and reported to the navy See also:department on the 21st of March that the explosion was caused by an exterior mine, the See also:principal reason for this decision being the upheaval of the ship's bottom.' On the loth of April President See also:McKinley approved a resolution demanding the withdrawal of Spain from Cuba and setting See also:noon of the 23rd of April as the latest date for a reply to the demand. Before this could be delivered by the American See also:minister in See also:Madrid, the Spanish government sent him his passports. On the 22nd the president declared a blockade of Cuban ports; on the 24th the Spanish government declared war; and on the ' The Spanish authorities made an examination, but did not inspect the interior, the chief See also:diver See also:reporting that " the See also:bilge and See also:keel of the See also:vessel throughout its entire extent were buried in the mud, but did not appear to have suffered any damage." It has been suggested that the explosion was the work of Cuban 'sympathizers who thus planned to secure American assistance against Spain. It was not until Ig10 that Congress made an See also:appropriation (and an inadequate one then) for raising the " Maine." on the Chinese coast. Ordered (April 25) to begin operations, particularly against the Spanish fleet, which he was directed to See also:capture or destroy, Dewey left Mira Bay on the 27th, and arrived off Luzon, in the Philippines, on the 3oth of April. The Spanish admiral Montojo anchored to the eastward of the See also:spit on which are the See also:village and See also:arsenal of See also:Cavite, in a See also:general east and west See also:line, keeping his See also:broadside to the northward. His force consisted of the " Reina Cristina," the " Castilla " (an old wooden steamer which had to be towed); the " See also:Isla de Cuba " and " Isla de Luzon " (protected cruisers of 1050 tons); the " See also:Don Juan de See also:Austria " and the " Don See also:Antonio de Ulloa " (gunboats of about 1150 tons), and the " Marques del Duero " (of 500 tons). There were six guns (3 See also:breech-loaders) in See also:battery at or near Cavite. Dewey stood on during the See also:night, and passed into the Boca Grande (about 5 M. broad), paying no attention to rumours of torpedoes in a channel so broad and deep, and at newer at idni g See also:manna. m ht passed El Fraile (a large See also:rock, ri m. from the south side); from which two shots were fired at him, and he was also fired at by the " Cavite " and one of the See also:city batteries. When he sighted the Spanish squadron to the southward he ordered his transports and the revenue cutter " Hugh M`Culloch " out into the bay, and stood down in See also:column with the " Olympia," " Baltimore," (( Raleigh," " Petrel," " Concord " and " Boston " at 400-yd. intervals. When within 5000 yds. he ported his helm, and at 5.41 a.m. opened See also:fire. He stood westwards along the Spanish line, using his See also:port batteries, turned to starboard and stood back, gradually decreasing his distance to 2000 yds. At 7 o'See also:clock the Spanish flagship attempted to come out and engage at See also:short range, but was driven back by the American fire. The Spanish squadron was now in very See also:bad See also:plight, but the seriousness of its See also:condition was not fully known to the American commander. At 7.35 Dewey withdrew, gave his men breakfast, and had a consultation of commanding See also:officers. Before he re-engaged at r r.16 the " Cristina " and " Castilla " had broken into flames, so that the See also:remainder of the action consisted in silencing the Cavite batteries and completing the destruction and demoralization of the smaller Spanish ships, which the " Petrel " was ordered in to bum. The victory was See also:complete. All the Spanish ships', were sunk or destroyed. The injury done the American ships was practically nil. The Spanish lost 167 killed and 214 wounded, out of a See also:total of 1875. The Americans had 7 slightly wounded out of 1748 men in action. Dewey took See also:possession of Cavite, paroled its See also:garrison, and awaited the arrival of a See also:land force to capture See also:Manila. The blockade of Havana had progressed without incident, beyond the capture of a number of Spanish steamers and sailing The Cuban vessels,2 and the shelling of some new earthworks Blockade. at See also:Matanzas on the 27th of April; but on the 11th of May a small action was fought at Cardenas, in which the Americans were repulsed and See also:Ensign See also:Worth Bagley, the first American officer to lose his life in the war, was killed. On the same See also:day a partially successful See also:attempt was made, under a heavy fire from the See also:shore, to cut the See also:cable between See also:Cienfuegos and Havana. Cervera had left the Cape Verde Islands on the 2gth of April with four armoured cruisers, the " Almifante Oquendo," " Infanta Maria See also:Theresa " and " Vizcaya " (See also:sister ships of 7000 tons) and the " Cristobal See also:Colon " (same See also:size; differently equipped) and three torpedo-See also:boat destroyers—a type not then represented in the American navy—" Furor," " Terror " and " Pluton." On See also:hearing (May I) of Cervera's departure, Sampson went east r000 m. to See also:San Juan, Porto Rico, with the armoured cruiser " ( New York," the battleships " Iowa " and " Indiana," the cruisers " See also:Montgomery " and " ( See also:Detroit," and one torpedo-boat. In going east he calculated on using a See also:speed of to knots, on getting to San Juan on the 8th, about the time the Spaniards would reach 1 Three of the best were afterwards raised and repaired by American See also:engineers. 2 The " See also:Buenaventura," the first See also:prize of the war, was taken by the gunboat " See also:Nashville " off Key West on the 23rd of April.its See also:longitude, and if they were not there, on returning off Havana before they could get to Havana harbour. He wished to prevent Cervera's refitting at San Juan, from which See also:place the American coast would be within easy reach, New York being only about 1400 M. away. But the speed of the American squadron See also:fell short of Sampson's expectation; he reached San Juan on the 12th, stood in to see if Cervera was in the harbour, and opened fire upon the fortifications. He did not See also:press the attack since Cervera was not See also:present, and at once started back for Havana without See also:news of Cervera, who was then in fact off See also:Martinique, with orders to go to San Juan. When he heard that Sampson was at San Juan, he steamed to See also:Curacao, where he arrived on the 14th of May and where the authorities allowed him to See also:coal. He reached See also:Santiago de Cuba early on the z nth without being sighted en route by any of the American scouts, though several were in the vicinity. Sampson thought the Spanish squadron might have returned to Spain.' But he learned that the enemy had See also:net turned back, on the night of the 15th, when a telegram from the navy department directed him to proceed with all despatch to Key West. He got there on the afternoon of the 18th, and found the flying The See also:search squadron (" Brooklyn " (flag), " Massachusetts," far Cervera's " Texas," and " See also:Scorpion "), which left on the next squadron. See also:morning (1gth) for Cienfuegos, then regarded by the navy department as the certain objective of the Spanish squadron. The battleship " Iowa," the gunboat " Castine," the torpedo-boat " See also:Dupont " and the collier " ( See also:Merrimac " sailed to join Schley on the loth, and gave him a force sufficient to meet Cervera. Sampson was advised by the department (on the 20th) to " send by the ` Iowa ' to Schley to proceed off Santiago de Cuba with his whole command, leaving one small vessel off Cienfuegos," but he directed Schley in an See also:order of the 21st if he was satisfied that Cervera was not at Cienfuegos, to proceed with all despatch to Santiago, and if the Spanish squadron was there, to blockade it. Commodore Schley arrived off Cienfuegos on the 22nd, and held to the See also:opinion that Cervera was there until the 24th, when Commodore M'Calla of the " See also:Marblehead " communicated with the insurgents some miles westwards, and learned the truth. Schley started that evening for Santiago, 300 M. distant, but on the afternoon of the 26th was 20 m. south of the port. Early on the 27th Schley received a despatch from the navy department suggesting that the Spanish squadron was in Santiago and bidding him see " that the enemy, if therein, does not leave without a decisive action." Schley replied " . . . cannot rennaip off Santiago present See also:state squadron coal See also:account . . . much to be regretted cannot obey orders of department. . . forced to proceed for coal to Key West ty way of See also:Yucatan Passage "; in the controversy that arose out of these events Schley's critics insisted that the " Iowa and the " Massachusetts " had at this time enough coal to carry them three times the distance from Santiago to Key West. Sampson with the " New York'' had arrived early on the 28th of May off Key West. When Schley's telegram, which had much disturbed the See also:Washington officials, was forwarded to Sampson, he secured permission to go at once to Santiago with the " New York " and " Oregon " (which had arrived at Key West on the 26th of May in excellent condition after her voyage of nearly 16,000 m. from the Pacific) to turn back Schley's heavier ships. Before he started he received a telegram from Schley stating that he would remain off Santiago. It is now known from the documents published by Admiral Cervera that the Spanish squadron, in the See also:interval preceding the 28th, when Schley arrived in sight of the port, was on the point of ieaving Santiago. On the morning of the 29th two Spanish cruisers were seen a short distance within the entrance, and on the 31st Schley, with the (( Massachusetts," " Iowa " and " New Orleans," stood in and made an attack upon these and the batteries at long range (8500-11,000 yds.). On the 3oth Sampson, leaving a squadron on the north side under Commodore See also:Watson, stood for 3 A telegram (not received by Cervera) had been sent to Martinique on the 12th of May, authorizing the squadron's return. Santiago at a speed of 13 knots. He arrived early on the 1st of See also:June and work was at once begun on the preparations for sinking the collier " Merrimac " in the entrance channel, which was less than 200 ft. broad in parts available for ships. The preparations for a See also:quick sinking were chiefly carried out by See also:naval constructor See also:Richmond P. Hobson, who went in, in the early morning of the 3rd of June, with a See also:crew of seven men. The steering-See also:gear was disabled by a See also:shell, and the ship drifted too far with the See also:tide and was sunk in a broad part of the channel where it did not See also:block the See also:egress of Cervera's squadron. Cervera sent word to Sampson that Hobson and his men, who had been captured, were unhurt. They were exchanged on the 7th of July. On the 6th of June the batteries at the entrance were bombarded and their weakness was ascertained. Sampson there-The United upon placed, every evening, a battleship (relieved States Fleet every two and a half See also:hours) See also:close in, with a search- before See also:light turned on the channel, making it impossible, as S nti go Cervera. afterwards said, for the Spanish squadron to See also:escape by night. The port of See also:Guantanamo, 40 M. east of Santiago, was occupied by the " Marblehead " and " See also:Yankee " on the 7th, a See also:battalion of See also:marines from the transport " See also:Panther" landed there on the loth, and the port was used thereafter as a base and coaling station. On the 14th the Spanish land forces retired before an expedition of the American marines, who remained in occupation until the 5th of August. A blockade of San Juan, Porto Rico, by one or two fast ships was kept up on account of the presence there of the destroyer " Terror," but this vessel, coming out (June 22) with a See also:gun-boat to attack the auxiliary cruiser " St See also:Paul," suffered sp severely that she could hardly return to port, and was thereafter unserviceable. When war was declared the total military forces of the United States consisted of 27,822 regulars and 114,602 See also:militia. An See also:act of the 22nd of April had authorized the president to See also:call upon the states and Territories for men in proportion to their See also:population, the regimental and See also:company officers to be named by the See also:governors of the states, the general and See also:staff officers by the president. A first call was made for 125,000 men, and a See also:month later a second call for 75,000. On the 26th of April large additions to the regular army were sanctioned for the war. The quotas were filled with extraordinary rapidity, and in May 124,776 had volunteered. The troops were concentrated chiefly at Chickamauga, Georgia, at See also:Camp See also:Alger, See also:Virginia, and at See also:Tampa, Florida, Preparations which was selected as the point for the embarcation fora Land of the expeditionary force for Cuba, and where Campaign. See also:Major-General W., R. Shafter was in command. With the exception of unimportant small expeditions, every-thing was delayed until control of the sea was assured, though some thirty large steamers were held in readiness near Tampa. After the arrival of Cervera at Santiago, the blockade of his squadron and the request (June 7) of Admiral Sampson to send a land force for co-operation, the troops embarked on the 7th and 8th of June, but a start was not made until the 14th, owing to a false See also:report that Spanish war-ships were in See also:Nicholas Channel. On the 29th the fleet of 32 transports, under See also:convoy, arrived off Santiago. The whole force consisted of about 17,000 officers and men, 16 light See also: Soon afterwards more voluuteers arrived.
No opposition was made to the landing and the small Spanish contingents at Daiquiri and Siboney were withdrawn without doingany damage to the equipment of the railway which ran from Santiago to the See also:iron mines at these points. The American troops (commanded by Major-General See also:Joseph See also:Wheeler until the 29th, when General Shafter landed) pushed forward, a soon as they landed, and found a small Spanish rearguard which was covering the concentration of outlying detachments on Santiago and which was entrenched 21 M. beyond Siboney, at See also:Las Guasimas. Brigadier-General S.B.M. Young with 964 dismounted cavalry engaged (June 24), and after a See also:sharp action, in which he lost 16 killed and 52 wounded, drove back the enemy, of whom 1r were killed out of some 500 engaged. The advance was slow and a See also:week elapsed before Shafter was ready to fight a See also:battle in front of Santiago. Here the defenders, under General Arsenio See also:Linares, held two positions, the See also: General Lawton's See also:division was to attack and capture El Caney, and thence move against the flank and rear of the defenders of San Juan, which would then be attacked in front by Kent and Wheeler from El Pozo. But Lawton for nine hours was checked by the garrison of El Caney, in spite of his great superiority in See also:numbers (4500 to 520); at 3 p.m. the final See also:assault on El Caney was successfully delivered by General A. R. See also:Chaffee's See also:brigade. Only about roo of the Spanish garrison escaped to Santiago; about 320 were killed or wounded, including General Vara del Rey, who, with a See also:brother and two sons, was killed. In the meantime Wheeler and Kent had an equally stubborn contest opposite San Juan hill, where, in the See also:absence of the assistance of Lawton, the battle soon became a purely frontal-fire fight, and the rifles of the firing line had to prepare the attack unaided. The strong position of the Spaniards, gallantly defended by about 700 men, held out until 12.30, when the whole line of the assailants suddenly advanced, without orders from or direction by superior authority, and carried the See also:crest of the Spanish position. A notable part in the attack was taken by the 1st Volunteer Cavalry or " Rough Riders," commanded by Colonel Leonard See also:Wood and Lieut.-Colonel Theodore Roosevelt. The Spaniards had no closed reserves, and their See also:retreat was made under a devastating fire from the Americans on the captured hills. On the American side over 1500 men out of 15,000 engaged, including several of the senior officers, were killed or wounded; and in one of Kent's brigades three successive commanders were killed or wounded. On the Spanish side, out of the small numbers engaged, over 50% were out of action. Linares himself was severely wounded, and handed over the command to General Jose Toral. The Cubans on the American right failed to prevent General Escario from entering Santiago with reinforcements from the interior, and at the beginning of the investment General Toral's forces numbered about 1o,000 men of the army and a naval contingent from the fleet. Though victorious, the American army was in danger: after great fatigue under a tropical See also:sun by day, the time spared at night from digging trenches was spent on a See also:rain- Investment soaked ground covered with thick vegetation; the of Santiago soldiers' blankets and heavy clothing had been See also:cast on the Land aside in the attack; and there was insufficient See also:food, side. because it was difficult to haul supplies over the one poor road from the base of supplies at Siboney. There was even discussion of retiring to a point nearer Siboney. Brisk firing was continued on the 2nd and 3rd of July, with a considerable number of casualties to the Americans. On the morning of the 3rd a demand was sent to the Spanish commander to surrender, with the alter-native of a See also:bombardment of the city to begin on the 4th. This in effect had already begun on the 1st, when Admiral Sampson fired a number of 8-in. shells from a point 3 M. east of the harbour entrance over the hills into the city, using a range of about 41 land miles. The result of this and the See also:threat of General Shafter was an See also:exodus of many thousands of civilians towards El Caney, where the American supplies were heavily taxed to support them. On the morning of the 3rd of July Sampson, in his flagship the " New York," left the fleet to confer with General Shafter at Naval Siboney with regard to combined operations at the Battle of harbour entrance.' At 9.31, when he had gone about Santiago. 5 m., the "Maria Teresa" was seen coming out. The ships in front of the port were the yacht " See also:Gloucester," the battle-ships " Indiana," " Oregon," "Iowa," and " Texas," the armoured cruiser " Brooklyn " and yacht " Vixen," in the order named from east to west, making a semicircle about 8 m. in length. The " Massachusetts " and " Suwanee " were coaling at Guantanamo. The " Iowa " hoisted the See also:signal " Enemy coming out." All at once stood in toward the Spanish ships, which were See also:standing westwards along shore, and began a heavy fire. The " Maria Teresa " (flagship) was followed at 800-yd. intervals by the " Vizcaya," " Colon " and " Oquendo." They were firing vigorously, but most of their projectiles went far beyond the American ships. The " Brooklyn " (flag of Commodore Schley, the senior officer present) made a turn to starboard, which seems to have caused the " Texas " to stop and back, and to have given the " Colon " the opportunity of passing almost unscathed. The " Maria Teresa " and " Oquendo " had taken fire almost at once, and, as their See also:water mains (outside the protective See also:deck) were cut, they were unable to extinguish the flames: they were run ashore at 10.15 and 10.20 respectively, about 61 m. west of Santiago, burning fiercely. The " Vizcaya " and " Colon " were still standing westwards. Cervera's destroyers, the " Pluton " and " Furor," had come out last, some distance behind the " Oquendo," and were received with a heavy fire from the " Indiana " and from the unarmoured " Gloucester," which engaged them at close quarters. They attempted to close, but were cut to pieces. The " New York," Sampson's flagship, had passed, and stood on signalling the " Iowa " and " Indiana " to go back and See also:watch the port, lest an attack be made on the American transports. The torpedo-boat " Ericsson " was ordered to See also:rescue the men from the two Spanish ships ashore, and the flagship, with all the others, stood on in pursuit of the " Vizcaya " and Colon." The " Vizcaya " hauled down her See also:colours off Aserraderos, 15 nautical miles west of Santiago, and was there run ashore burning about 11.15 a.m. The " Iowa " was ordered to stop and rescue her men, and the " Oregon," " Brooklyn " and " Texas " (and behind them the flagship) settled down to the See also:chase of the " Colon," some 6 m. ahead of the nearest American ship. She was, however, slacking her speed, and at 12.40 the " Oregon " opened with her 13-in. guns at a range of 9000 yds., as did also the " Brooklyn," with her 8-in. When the " Oregon " had fired five shells, the " Colon " hauled down her colours, and was beached at the mouth of the Rio Turquino, where in spite of endeavours to recover her, she became a total wreck. The whole Spanish fleet was destroyed; Admiral Cervera was taken prisoner; Captain Villamil, commanding the torpedo flotilla, went down with his ship: and Captain Lazaga of the " Oquendo " was drowned. Over 500 Spaniards were killed or wounded, and the survivors (except a few who escaped to Santiago) were prisoners. On the American side only one See also:man was killed and ten were wounded, and no ship received serious injury. After the naval victory combined operations were arranged for attacking the batteries of the harbour, but little more fighting occurred, and eventually a preliminary agreement was signed on the 15th, and the besiegers entered Santiago on the 17th. In accordance with the terms of the See also:capitulation, all the Spanish forces in the division of Santiago de Cuba surrendered and were conveyed to Spain. The total number amounted to about 23,500, of whom some 10,500 were in the city of Santiago. The exposure of the campaign had begun to tell in the sickness of the Americans: yellow See also:fever had broken out to some extent; and no less that 50% were attacked by the milder forms of 'Shaffer had urged that the squadron should enter the harbour and take the city. Sampson (and the Navy department) was unwilling to See also:risk losing a ship in the well-See also:mined harbour and wanted the army to move on the forts and give the American squadron an opportunity to See also:drag the harbour for mines.malarial fever. The army, indeed, was so weakened by illness that the general officers united in urging its removal from Cuba. Major-General See also:Nelson A. Miles, the general-in-chief, had arrived with reinforcements on the 12th of July, but the See also:majority of these men were retained on board ship. The fleet and the army gathered in Guantanamo Bay; and a new flying squadron, the " eastern squadron," was organized under Commodore John C. Watson, to proceed by way of the Mediterranean to the Philippines, threatening the Spanish coast, in order to meet a Spanish " reserve squadron," which had been formed towards the end of May, and which was to be sent on to the eastern coast of the United States, and thence to Cuba, but which was diverted toward the Philippines, and left See also:Cadiz, on the 16th of June, for the East. This squadron turned back on the 8th of July after hearing the news of the Spanish defeat at Santiago.
On the 7th of May a telegram had been received from Dewey at Manila: " I control bay completely, and can take city at any time, but I have not sufficient men to hold." The cruiser " See also:Charleston " and the steamer " See also:Peking," with ammunition, supplies and troops, were sent to him at once. Major-General Wesley See also:Merritt, to whom was assigned the command of the troops for the Philippines, first requested a force of 14,000, and afterwards asked for 20,000 men. On the 25th of May the first troops, 2491 in number, under Brigadier-General T. M. See also:
removal of non-combatants, was sent to the Spanish captain-general, Fermin Jaudenes, who replied that he was surrounded by the insurgents,2 and that there was no place of See also:refuge for the sick and for the See also:women and children. A second joint note demanding surrender was declined by the Spanish commander, who offered to refer it to Madrid. This was refused, and preparations were made for an attack. There were 13,000 troops within the city fortifications, but with the strong fleet in front, and with the beleaguering force of Americans and insurgents ashore, resistance was hopeless. When the combined assault of army and navy was made on the 13th there was no great resistance, and a See also: The attitude of the population was exceedingly friendly, and opposition was not met until advance was begun northward. The troops were divided into four columns, advancing from Guanica around the western end of the island to See also:Mayaguez: from See also:Arroyo at the eastern end to meet the San Juan road at 'See also:Cayey; from See also:Ponce by the See also:fine military road, 70 m., to San Juan; and the See also:fourth column by way of Adjuntas and Utuado, midway of the island. The various movements involved several skirmishes, the chief op-position being met by the western column on the loth of August, and by the column from Ponce on the 9th, when the Americans lost I killed and 22 wounded; the Spanish, 126 killed and wounded•, and over 200 prisoners. A further advance on the San Juan See also:highway would probably have See also:developed greater resistance, but news of the suspension of hostilities intervened. The total American loss had been 3 killed and 40 wounded. On the 12th of August operations were begun by the " See also:Newark" and other vessels against See also:Manzanillo. But during the' night news arrived of the See also:signing of the See also:peace See also:protocol on the 12th, and of an See also:armistice, of which the Americans were informed by the Spanish commander under a flag of truce. The total American loss was—in the navy, 1 officer, 17 men killed; in the army, 29 officers, 440 men. The See also:health of the American fleet was kept remarkably. Its See also:average Losses of the strength during the 114 days of hostilities was Americans. 26,102; the deaths from disease during this time were 56, or at the See also:rate of 7 per r000 per See also:year. As nearly the whole of the service was in the tropics, and in the summer or wet See also:season, this is a convincing See also:proof of the efficiency in sanitary See also:administration. The army did not fare so well, losing by disease during May, June, July and August, 67 officers and 1872 men out of an average total of 227,494. Its larger proportion of illness must of course be ascribed, in part, to its greater hardships. The war department was accused of See also:gross maladministration; but the charges were not upheld by an investigating See also:committee. The lack of proper preparation by the war department and the See also:ignorance and thoughtlessness of the volunteers were the principal reasons for the high death-rate in the army.
For the terms of the peace and the results of the war see UNITED STATES; PHILIPPINE ISLANDS; CUBA; PORTO RICO.
The literature of the Spanish-American War is voluminous: amongst the principal See also:sources of See also:information may be mentioned; The See also:annual reports of various departments for 1898, especially the War Notes of the See also:Office of Naval Intelligence, Washington, which include Spanish See also:translations, and the appendix to the report of the See also:Bureau of See also:Navigation; R. H. Titherington, A History of the Spanish-American War (New York, 1900) ; H. C. See also:Lodge, See also:Story of the Spanish War (New York, 1899) ; H. W. See also: A. M. Goode, With Sampson through the War (London, 1899); J. Wheeler, Santiago Campaign (See also:Philadelphia, 1899) ; Theodore Roosevelt, The Rough Riders (New York, 1899) ; C. D. Sigsbee, See also:Personal Narratives of the Battleship Maine (New York, 1899) ; R. A. Alger, Spanish-American War (New York, 1900); See also:Gomez See also:Nunez, La Guerra his pano-americana (Madrid, 1900); H. Kunz, Taktische Beispiele aus den Kriegen der Neuesten Zeit II. (See also:Berlin, 1901); Admiral Pluddemann, Der Krieg um Cuba 1898 (Berlin) ; John D. Long, The New American Navy (2 vols., New York, 1903) ; John R. Spears, Our Navy in the War with Spain (ibid., 1898); Bujac, Precis de quelques campagnes contemporaines, IV. (See also:Paris, 1899); and the See also:Century and Scribner's magazines for 1898 and 1899 passim. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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