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special Divine guidance. At about the age of twenty-five he is said to have disappeared into the veldt, where he remained alone for several days, under the See also:

INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of deep religious fervour. During this sojourn in the See also:

WILDERNESS

wilderness Kruger stated that he had been especially favoured by See also:

God, who had communed with and inspired him.

Through-See also:

nut his life he professed this faith in God's will and guidance, and much of his influence over his followers is attributable to their belief in his sincerity and in his enjoyment of Divine favour. The Dutch Reformed See also:

Church in the Transvaal, pervaded by a spirit and faith not unlike those which distinguished the See also:

COVENANTERS

Covenanters, was divided in the early days into three sects. Of these the narrowest, most puritanical, and most bigoted was the Dopper See also:

SECT

sect, to which Kruger belonged. His Dopper following was always unswerving in its support, and at all See also:

CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

critical times in the See also:

INTERNAL

internal quarrels of the See also:

state rallied See also:

ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round him. The See also:

charge of See also:

HYPOCRISY

hypocrisy, frequently made against Kruger—if by this charge is meant the See also:

mere juggling with See also:

religion for purely See also:

POLITICAL

political ends—does not appear entirely just. The subordination of See also:

REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason to a sense of superstitious fanaticism is the keynote of his character, and largely the explanation of his life. Where faith is so profound as to believe the Divine guidance all, and the individual intelligence nil, a See also:

man is able to persuade himself that any course he chooses to take is the one he is directed to take. Where bigotry is so See also:

BLIND, MATHILDE (1841—1896)

blind, reason is but dust in the See also:

BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. bilantia, an apparatus for weighing, from bi, two, and lanx, a dish or scale)

balance. At the same See also:

time there were incidents in Kruger's life which but See also:

ill conform to any Biblical See also:

standard he might choose to adopt or feel imposed upon him. Even See also:

van Oordt, his eloquent historian and apologist, is cognisant of this fact. When the lad, who had already taken See also:

PART

part in fights with the See also:

MATABELE (" vanishing " or " hidden " people, so called from their appearance in battle, hidden behind enormous oxhide shields)

Matabele and the Zulus, was fourteen his family settled north of the See also:

VAAL

Vaal and were among the foundersof the Transvaal state. At the age of seventeen Paul found himself an assistant See also:

field See also:

CORNET,

cornet, at twenty he was field cornet, and at twenty-seven held a command in an expedition against the See also:

BECHUANA

Bechuana See also:

CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief Sechele —the expedition in which See also:

David See also:

LIVINGSTONE, DAVID (1813-1873)

Livingstone's See also:

MISSION

mission-See also:

house was destroyed.

In 1853 he took part in another expedition against Montsioa. When not fighting natives in those early days Kruger wasengaged in distant hunting excursions which took him as far north as the See also:

ZAMBEZI

Zambezi. In 1852 the Transvaal secured the recognition of its See also:

independence from Great See also:

BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain in the See also:

Sand See also:

RIVER

River See also:

convention. For many years after this date the See also:

CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of the See also:

COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country was one bordering upon anarchy, and into the See also:

FACTION (through the French, from Lat. factio, a company of persons combined for action, facere, to do; from the other French derivative facon comes " fashion ")

faction strife which was continually going on Kruger freely entered. In 1856–1857 he joined M. W. See also:

PRETORIUS

Pretorius in his See also:

ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to abolish the See also:

DISTRICT

district governments in the Transvaal and to overthrow the Orange See also:

FREE

Free State See also:

government and compel a federation between the two countries. The See also:

RAID

raid into the Free State failed; the blackest incident in connexion with it was the attempt of the Pretorius and Kruger party to induce the Basuto to harass the Free State forces behind, while they were attacking them in front. From this time forward Kruger's life is so intimately See also:

BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound up with the See also:

HISTORY

history of his country, and even in later years of See also:

South See also:

Africa, that a study of that history is essential to an understanding of it (see TRANSVAAL and SOUTH AFRICA). In 1864, when the faction fighting ended and Pretorius was president, Kruger was elected commandant-See also:

general of the forces of the Transvaal. In 187o a boundary dispute arose with the See also:

BRITISH

British government, which was settled by the See also:

KEATE, JOHN (1773—1852)

Keate See also:

AWARD (from O. Fr. ewart, or esguart, cf. " reward ")

award (1871). The decision caused so much discontent in the Transvaal that it brought about the downfall of President Pretorius and his party; and See also:

Thomas See also:

FRANCOIS (1558-1614)

Francois See also:

BURGERS, THOMAS FRANCOIS (1834-1881)

Burgers, an educated Dutch See also:

MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister, See also:

RESIDENT

resident in Cape Colony, was elected to succeed him.

During the See also:

TERM

term of Burgers' See also:

PRESIDENCY

presidency Kruger appeared to great disadvantage. Instead of loyally supporting the president in the difficult task of See also:

BUILDING

building up a See also:

STABLE

stable state, he did everything in his See also:

POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power to undermine his authority, going so far as to urge the Boers to pay no taxes while Burgers was in See also:

OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office. The faction of which he was a prominent member was chiefly responsible for bringing about that impasse in the government of the country which See also:

drew such See also:

BITTER, KARL THEODORE FRANCIS (1867– )

bitter protest from Burgers and terminated in the See also:

ANNEXATION (Lat. ad, to, and nexus, joining)

annexation by the British in See also:

APRIL

April 1877. At this See also:

period of Transvaal history it is impossible to trace any true patriotism in the See also:

ACTION

action of the See also:

MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of the inhabitants. The one See also:

IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of Kruger and his faction was to oust Burgers from office on any pretext, and, if possible, to put Kruger in his See also:

PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place. When the downfall of Burgers was assured and annexation offered itself as the alternative resulting from his downfall, it is true that Kruger opposed it. But matters had gone too far. Annexation became an accomplished fact, and Kruger accepted paid office under the British government. He continued, however, so openly to agitate for the retrocession of the country, being a member of two deputations which went to See also:

England endeavouring to get the annexation annulled, that in 1878 See also:

Sir See also:

THEOPHILUS

Theophilus See also:

SHEPSTONE, SIR THEOPHILUS (1817-1893)

Shepstone, the British See also:

ADMINISTRATOR

administrator, dismissed him from his service. In 188o the Boer See also:

REBELLION

rebellion occurred, and Kruger was one of the famous triumvirate, of which General Piet See also:

Joubert and Pretorius were the other members, who, after See also:

MAJUBA (properly AMAJUBA, Zulu for "the hill of doves")

Majuba, negotiated the terms of See also:

peace on which the See also:

PRETORIA

Pretoria convention of See also:

AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August 1881 was drafted. In 1883 he was elected president of the Transvaal, receiving 3431 votes as against 1171 recorded for Joubert. In See also:

NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November 1883 President Kruger again visited England, this time for the purpose of getting another convention.

The visit .was successful, the See also:

LONDON

London convention, which for years was a subject of controversy, being granted by See also:

Lord See also:

Derby in 1884 on behalf of. the British government. The government of the Transvaal being once more in the hands of the Boers, the country rapidly drifted towards that state of See also:

NATIONAL

national See also:

BANKRUPTCY (from Lat. bancus or Fr. banquet table or counter, and Lat. ruptus, broken)

bankruptcy See also:

horn which it had only been saved by annexation in 1877. In 1886, the See also:

YEAR

year in which the See also:

RAND

Rand mines were discovered, President Kruger was by no means a popular man even among his own followers; as an administrator of internal affairs he had shown himself grossly incompetent, and it was only the specious success of his negotiations with the British government which had retained him any measure of support. In 1888 he was elected president for a second term of office. In 1889 Dr. Leyds, a See also:

young Hollander, was appointed state secretary, and the See also:

SYSTEM

system of state monopolies around which so much corruption See also:

GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew up was soon in full course of development. The principle of government See also:

MONOPOLY (Gr. govomeXla or govoircaXwv, exclusive sale, from govds, alone, and irwXeiv, to sell)

monopoly in See also:

trade being thus established, President Kruger now turned his See also:

ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention to the further securing of Boer political monopoly. The Uitlanders were increasing in See also:

numbers, as well as providing the state with a See also:

revenue. In 1890, 1891, 1892, and 1894 the See also:

FRANCHISE (from 0. Fr. franchise, freedom, franc, free)

franchise See also:

LAWS

laws (which at the time of the convention were on a liberal basis) were so modified that all Uitlanders were practically excluded altogether. In 1893 Kruger had to See also:

FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face a third presidential See also:

election, and on this occasion the opposition he had raised among the burgers, largely by the favouritism he displayed to the Hollander party, was so strong that it was fully anticipated that his more liberal opponent, General Joubert, would be elected. Before the election was decided Kruger took care to conciliate the volksraad members, as well as to see that at all the volksraad elections, which occurred shortly before the presidential election, his supporters were returned, or, if not returned, that his opponents were objected to on some trivial pretext, and by this means prevented from actually sitting in the volksraad until the presidential election was over. The Hollander and concessionnaire influence, which had become a strong power in the state, was all in favour of President Kruger.

In spite of these facts Kruger's position was insecure. " General Joubert was, without any doubt whatever, elected by a very considerable majority."' But the figures as announced gave Kruger a majority of about 700 votes. General Joubert accused the government of tampering with the returns, and appealed to the volksraad. The See also:

APPEAL

appeal, however, was fruitless, and Kruger retained office. The action taken by President Kruger at this election, and his previous actions in ousting President Burgers and in absolutely excluding the Uitlanders from the franchise, all show that at any cost, in his See also:

OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion, the government must remain a See also:

close See also:

CORPORATION (from Lat. corporare, to form into a body, corpus, corporis)

corporation, and that while he lived he must remain at the See also:

head of it. From 1877 onward Kruger's See also:

EXTERNAL

external policy was consistently See also:

ANTI, or CAMPA

anti-British, and on every See also:

side—in See also:

BECHUANALAND (a name given from its inhabitants, the Bechuana, q.v.)

Bechuanaland, in See also:

RHODESIA (so named after Cecil Rhodes)

Rhodesia, in See also:

ZULULAND

Zululand—he attempted to enlarge the frontiers of the Transvaal at the expense of Great Britain. In these disputes he usually gained something, and it was not until 1895 that he was definitely defeated in his endeavours to obtain a seaport. His internal policy was blind, reckless and unscrupulous, and inevitably led to disaster. It may be summed up in his own words when replying to a deputation of Uitlanders, who desired to obtain the legalization of the use of the See also:

ENGLISH

English See also:

LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language in the Transvaal. " This," said Kruger, " is my country; these are my laws. Those who do not like to obey my laws can leave my country." This rejection of the advances of the Uitlandersby whose aid he could have built up a free and stable republic—led to his downfall, though the failure of the See also:

Jameson Raid in the first days of 1896 gave him a See also:

SIGNAL

signal opportunity to secure the safety of his country by the See also:

grant of real reforms. But the Raid taught him no See also:

LESSON (through Fr. lecon from Lat. lectio, reading; legere, to read)

lesson of this See also:

KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind, and despite the intervention of the British government the Uitlanders' grievances were not remedied.

In 1898 Kruger was elected president of the Transvaal for the See also:

FOURTH

fourth and last time. In 1899 relations between the Transvaal and Great Britain had become so strained, by reason of the oppression of the See also:

FOREIGN

foreign See also:

POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population, that a See also:

CONFERENCE

conference was arranged at See also:

BLOEMFONTEIN

Bloemfontein between Sir See also:

ALFRED

Alfred (afterwards Lord) See also:

Milner, the high See also:

COMMISSIONER

commissioner, and President Kruger. Kruger was true to his principles. • At every juncture iii his life his object had been to gain for himself and his own narrow policy everything that he could, while conceding nothing in return. It was for this reason that he invariably failed to come to any arrangement with Sir See also:

John See also:

Brand while the latter was president of the Free State. In 1889, the very year following President Brand's See also:

DEATH

death, he was able to make a treaty with President Reitz, his successor, which bound each of the Boer republics to assist the other in See also:

case its independence was menaced, unless the See also:

QUARREL

quarrel could be shown to be an unjust one on the part of the state so menaced. In effect it bound the Free State to See also:

SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share all the hazardous See also:

RISK

risk of the reckless anti-British Transvaal policy, 1 Sir See also:

Percy Fitzpatrick, in The Transvaal from Within, ch. iii.without the Free State itself receiving anything in return. Kruger thus achieved one of the See also:

OBJECTS

objects of his life. With such a history of apparent success, it is not to be wondered at that the Transvaal president came to Bloemfontein to meet Sir Alfred Milner in no See also:

MOOD

mood for concession. It is true that he made an ostensible offer on the franchise question, but that proposal was made dependent on so many conditions that it was a palpable sham. Every proposition which Sir Alfred Milner made was met by the objection that it threatened the independence of the Transvaal. This See also:

RETORT (Lat. retorquere, to twist or turn back)

retort was President Kruger's rallying cry whenever he found himself in the least degree pressed, either from within or without the state.

To admit Uitlanders to the franchise, to no See also:

MATTER

matter how moderate a degree, would destroy the independence of the state. In October 1899, after a See also:

long and fruitless See also:

correspondence with the British government, See also:

war with Great Britain was ushered in by an See also:

ULTIMATUM (from Lat. ultimus, last)

ultimatum from the Transvaal. Immediately after the ultimatum See also:

NATAL

Natal and the Cape Colony were invaded by the Boers both of the Transvaal and the Free State. Yet one of the most memorable utterances made by Kruger at the Bloemfontein conference was couched in the following terms: " We follow out what God says, ` Accursed be he that removeth his See also:

NEIGHBOUR (O. Eng. neahgebiir, from Walt, " nigh," " near ")

neighbour's landmark.' As long as your See also:

EXCELLENCY (Lat. excellentia, excellence)

Excellency lives you will see that we shall never be the attacking party on another man's See also:

LAND

land." The course of the war that followed is described under TRANSVAAL. In 1900, Bloemfontein and Pretoria having been occupied" by British troops, Kruger, too old to go on See also:

COMMANDO

commando, with the consent of his executive proceeded to See also:

EUROPE

Europe, where he endeavoured to induce the See also:

EUROPEAN

European See also:

POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers to intervene on his behalf, but without success. From this time he ceased to have any political influence. He took up his See also:

RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence at See also:

Utrecht, where he dictated a See also:

RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record of his career, published in 1902 under the See also:

TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of The See also:

MEMOIRS

Memoirs of Paul Kruger. He died on the 14th of See also:

JULY

July 1904 at Clarens, near See also:

VEVEY [German Vivis]

Vevey, on the shores of the See also:

Lake of See also:

Geneva, whither he had gone for the See also:

SAKE

sake of his See also:

HEALTH

health. He was buried at Pretoria on the following 16th of See also:

DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December, Dingaan's See also:

Day, the anniversary of the day in 1838 when the Boers crushed the Zulu See also:

king Dingaan—a fight in which Kruger, then a lad of thirteen, had taken part. Kruger was thrice married, and had a large family. His second wife died in 1891. When he went to Europe he See also:

LEFT

left his third wife in Lord See also:

Roberts's custody at Pretoria, but she gradually failed, and died there (July 1901).

It was in her See also:

GRAVE

grave that the See also:

BODY

body of her See also:

HUSBAND

husband was laid. It is recorded that when a statue to President Kruger at Pretoria was erected, it was by Mrs. Kruger's wish that the See also:

hat was left open at the See also:

TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top, in See also:

order that the See also:

RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain-See also:

WATER

water might collect there for the birds to drink. See J. F. van Oordt, P. Kruger en de opkomst d. Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek (See also:

Amsterdam, 1898); the Memoirs already mentioned; F. R. Statham, Paul Kruger and his Times (1898) ; and, among See also:

WORKS

works with a wider See also:

SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)

scope, G. M. Theal, History of South Africa (for events down to 1872 only); Sir J. P.

Fitzpatrick, The Transvaal from Within (1899); The Times History of the War in South Africa (1900-9) ; and A. P. Hillier, South See also:

AFRICAN

African Studies (1900).

End of Article: KRUGER, STEPHANUS JOHANNES PAULUS (1825-1904)

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