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ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER
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See also:ROMAN See also:EMPIRE, LATER . The reign of See also:Constantine the See also:Great forms the most deep-reaching See also:division in the See also:history of See also:Europe. The See also:external continuity is not broken, but the principles which guided society in the See also:Greek and Roman See also:world are replaced by a new See also:order of ideas. The See also:emperor-See also:worship, which expressed a belief in the ideal of the earthly empire of See also:Rome, gives way to See also:Christianity; this is the outward sign that a See also:mental transformation, which we can trace for 300 years before in visible processes of decay and growth, had reached a crisis. Besides the See also:adoption of Christianity, Constantine's reign is marked by an event only second in importance, the shifting of the centre of gravity of the Empire from the See also:west to the See also:east by making See also:Byzantium a second See also:capital, a second Rome. The See also:foundation of See also:Constantinople (q.v.) determined the subsequent history of the See also:state; it established permanently the division between the eastern and western parts of the Empire —a principle already introduced—and soon exhibited, though not immediately, the preponderance of the eastern See also:half. The eastern provinces were the richest and most resourceful, and only needed a Rome in their midst to proclaim this fact; and further, it was eastward that the Empire fronted, for here was the one great civilized state with which it was in See also:constant antagonism. Byzantium was refounded on the See also:model of Rome, had its own See also:senate, and presently a praefectus urbi. But its See also:character was different in two ways: it was See also:Christian and it was Greek. From its foundation New Rome had a Christian See also:stamp; it had no history as the capital of a See also:pagan empire. There was, however, no intention of depressing Rome to a secondary See also:rank in See also:political importance; this was brought about by the force of circumstances. The Christian Roman Empire, from the first to the last Constantine, endured for 1130 years, and during that See also:long See also:period, which witnessed the births of all the great See also:modern nations of Europe, experienced many vicissitudes of decline and revival. In the 5th See also:century it lost all its western provinces through the expansion of the Teutons; but in the 6th asserted something of its See also:ancient See also:power and won back some of its losses. In the 7th it was brought very See also:low through the expansion of the See also:Saracens and of the Slays, but in consequence. of See also:internal reforms and prudent See also:government in the 8th century was able before the end of the 9th to initiate a new brilliant period of power and See also:conquest. From the See also:middle of the 11th century a decline began; besides the perpetual dangers on the eastern and See also:northern frontiers, the Empire was menaced by the political aggression of the See also:Normans and the commercial aggression of See also:Venice; then its capital was taken and its dominions dismembered by See also:Franks and Venetians in 1204. It survived the See also:blow for 250 years, as a See also:shadow of its former self.
During this long See also:life its See also:chief political role was that of acting as a defender of Europe against the great See also:powers of western See also:Asia. While it had to resist a continuous See also:succession of dangerous enemies on its northern frontier in Europe—See also:German, See also:Slavonic, Finnic and Tatar peoples—it always considered that its front was towards the east, and that its gravest task was to See also:face the powers which successively inherited the dominion of See also:Cyrus and See also:Darius. From this point of view we might See also:divide the external history of the Empire into four great periods, each marked by a struggle with a different See also:Asiatic power: (I) with See also:Persia, ending c. 63o with the See also:triumph of Rome; (2) with the Saracens, who ceased to be formidable in the 11th century;
(3) with the Seljuk See also:Turks, in the 11th and 12th centuries;
(4) with the See also:Ottoman Turks, in which the Roman power went down.
See also:Medieval historians, concentrating their See also:interest on the rising states of western Europe, often fail to recognize the position held by the later Empire and its See also:European See also:prestige. Up to the middle of the 11th century it was in actual strength the first power in Europe, except in the lifetime of See also: Throughout the whole period (to 1204) Constantinople was the first See also:city in the world. The See also:influence which the Empire exerted upon its neighbours, especially the Slavonic peoples, is the second great role which it fulfilled for Europe—a role on which perhaps the most speaking commentary is the See also:doctrine that the See also:Russian See also:Tsar is the heir of the Roman See also:Caesar. The Empire has been called by many names- Greek, See also:Byzantine, See also:Lower (Bas-empire), Eastern (or East-Roman). All these have a certain See also:justification as descriptions, but the only strictly correct name is Roman (as recognized in the See also:title of See also:Gibbon's See also:work). The continuity from See also:Augustus to Constantine XI. is unbroken; the emperor was always the Roman emperor; his subjects were always See also:Romans ('Pwµaiot: hence Romaic—Modern Greek). " Greek Empire" expresses the fact that the state became predominantly Greek in character, owing to the loss, first of the Latin provinces, afterwards of See also:Syria and See also:Egypt; and from the middle of the 6th century Greek became the See also:official See also:language. " Lower Empire " (Later is preferable) marks the great actual distinction in character between the development before Constantine (Haut-empire) and after his adoption of Christianity. " Byzantine ` sums up in a word the unique Graeco-Roman civilization which was centred in New Rome. Eastern is a See also:term of convenience, but it has been used in two senses, not to be confused. It has been used, loosely, to designate the eastern half of the Empire during the 8o years or so (from 395) when there were two lines of emperors, ruling formally as colleagues but practically See also:independent, at Rome and Constantinople; but though there were two emperors, as often before, there was only one Empire. It has also been used, justifiably, to distinguish the true Roman Empire from the new state founded by Charles the Great (800), which also claimed to be the Roman Empire; Eastern and Western Empire are from this date forward legitimate terms of distinction. But between the periods to which the legitimate and illegitimate uses of the term " Eastern Empire " apply lies a period of more than 300 years, in which there was only one Empire in any sense of the word. A See also:chronological table of the dynasties will assist the reader of the See also:historical See also:sketch which follows. Succession of Emperors arranged in Dynasties. I. CONSTANTINIAN See also:DYNASTY.—A.D. 324-363. Emperors (founder of dynasty, See also:Constantius I., 305-306) : Constantine I. (306, See also:sole emperor since), 324-337. In west—Constantine II., 337-340; See also:Constans, 337-350. In east—Constantius II., 337- Sole emperors: Constantius II., 350-361; See also:Julian, 361-363. INTER-DYNASTY.—See also:JOVian, 363-364. 2. VALENTINIANEAN DYNASTY.—A.D. 364-392. Emperors: In west—Valentinian I., 364-375; See also:Gratian, 367-383; Valentinian II., 375-392. In east—See also:Valens, 365-378 (See also:Theodosius I., 379-392). 3. THEODOSIAN DYNASTY.—A.D. 392-457. Emperors: Theodosius I. (379), 392-395. In east—See also:Arcadius, 395-408; Theodosius II., 408-450; See also:Marcian, 450—457. In west—See also:Honorius, 395-423; Constantius III., 422; Valentinian III., 425-455; (non-dynastic) See also:Maximus, 455; Avitus, 455-456. 4. LEONINE DYNASTY.—A.D. 457-518. Emperors: In east—See also:Leo I., 457-474; Leo II., 474; See also:Zeno, 474-491; See also:Anastasius I., 491-518. In west—non-dynastic, See also:Majorian, 457-461; See also:Severus, 461-465; (Leo I. sole emperor, 465-467); See also:Anthemius, 467-472; See also:Olybrius, 472; Glycerius, 473-474; See also:Julius See also:Nepos, 474-480; (usurper, See also:Romulus Augustulus, 475—476). 5. JUSTINIANEAN DYNASTY.—A.D. 518—602. Emperors: See also:Justin I., 518-527; Justinian I., 527-565; Justin II., 565-578; Tiberius II., 578-582; See also:Maurice, 582-602. INTER-DYNASTY.—See also:PhOCaS, 602–610 6. HERACLIAN DYNASTY.—A.D. 610-71I. Emperors: See also:Heraclius, 610—641; Constantine III., 64r; See also:Heracleonas, 641-642; Constans II., 642-668; Constantine IV. (Pogonatus) 668-685; Justinian II. (Rhinotmetus), 685-695; (non-dynastic) See also:Leontius,695-698 and Tiberius III. (Apsimar), 698-705 ; Justinian II. (restored), 705-711. II.
INTER-DYNASTY.—See also: (Armenian), 813-820. 8. PHRYGIAN OR AMORIAN DYNASTY —A.D. 82o-867. Emperors: Michael II. (Stammerer), 820-829; See also:Theophilus, 829–842; Michael III. (Drunkard), 842-867. 9. MACEDONIAN DYNASTY.—A.D. 867-I057. Emperors: See also:Basil I. (Macedonian), 867-886; Leo VI. (philosopher) and See also: (See also:Ducas), 1059-1067; Michael VII (Parapinaces), Andronicus and Constantine XI , Io67; Romanus IV. (See also:Diogenes), 1067–1071; Michael VII., alone, 1071-1078; Nicephorus III. (Botaneiates), 1078-1081. I0. COMNENIAN DYNASTY.—A.D. I081–I204. Emperors: Alexius I. (See also:nephew of Isaac I.), 1081-1118; John II., 1118-1143; See also:Manuel I., 1143-1180; Alexius II., 1180-1183; Andronicus I., 1183-1185; Isaac II. (See also:Angelus), 1185-1195; Alexius III. (Angelus), 1195-1203; Isaac II. and Alexius IV., 1203-1204. INTER-DYNASTY.—AlexiUS V. (Murtzuphlus), 1204. See also:Capture of Constantinople and dismemberment of the Empire by the Venetians and Franks, A.D. 1204-1205. II. LASCARID DYNASTY.—A.D. I206-I259. Emperors: See also:Theodore I. (See also:Lascaris), 1206-1222; John_ III. (Vatatzes or Batatzes), 1222-1254; Theodore II. (Lascaris), 1254-1259. I2. PALAEOLOGIAN DYNASTY.—A.D. I259-1453. Emperors: Michael VIII. (See also:Palaeologus), 1259-1282; Andronicus II. (See also:Elder), 1282–1328 ; Andronicus III.(Younger), 1328–1341; John V., 1341-1391; (non-dynastic), John (Cantacuzenus), 1347–1355; Manuel II.,1391-1425;JJohn VI., 1425-1448; Constantine XI., or XII. (Dragases), 1448-1453. Historical Sketch.—See also:Diocletian's artificial experiment of two See also:Augusti and two Caesars had been proved a failure, leading to twenty years of disastrous See also:civil See also:wars; and when Constantine the Great (q.v.) destroyed his last See also:rival and restored domestic See also:peace, he ruled for the See also:rest of his life with undivided sway. But he had three sons, and this led to a new See also:partition of the Empire after his See also:death, and to more domestic wars, Constans first annexing the See also:share of Constantine II. (340) and becoming sole ruler of the west, to be in turn destroyed by Constantius II., who in 350 remained sole See also:sovereign of the Empire. Having no See also:children, he was succeeded by his See also:cousin, Julian the Apostate (q.v.). This period was marked by wars against the Germans, who were pressing on the See also:Rhine and Danish frontiers, and against Persia. Julian lost his life in the eastern struggle, which was then terminated by a disadvantageous peace. But the German danger See also:grew graver, and the See also:battle of See also:Adrianople, in which the Visigoths, who had crossed the See also:Danube in consequence of the coming of the See also:Huns (see GoTHs and HuNS), won a great victory, and the emperor Valens perished (378), announced that the question between Roman and Teuton had entered on a new See also:stage. Theodosius the Great saved the situation for the See also:time by his See also:Gothic pacification. The efforts of a See also:series of exceptionally able and hard-working rulers preserved the Empire intact throughout the 4th century, but the dangers which they weathered were fatal to their weaker successors. On the death of Theodosius the decisive moment came for the expansion of the Germans, and they took the See also:tide at the See also:flood. There were three elements in the situation. Besides the See also:Teutonic peoples beyond the frontier there were dependent See also:people who had settled within the Empire (as Visigoths in See also:Moesia, See also:Vandals in See also:Pannonia), and further there were the semi-Romanized Germans in the service of the Empire, some of whom had risen to leading positions (like See also:Merobaudes and See also:Stilicho). A Germanization of the Empire, or See also:part of it, in some shape was inevitable, but, if the rulers of the 5th century had been men of the same stamp as the rulers of the 4th, the See also:process might have assumed a different See also:form. The sons of Theodosius were both incapable; and in their reigns the future of the state which was divided between them was decided. The See also:dualism between the east (under Arcadius) and the west (under Honorious) See also:developed under the See also:rule of these See also:brothers into antagonism verging on hostility. The German danger was averted in the east, but it led in a few years to the loss of many of the western provinces, and at the end of ninety years theimmediate authority of the Roman Emperor did not extend west of the Adriatic. The reign of Honorius saw the See also:abandonment of See also:Britain, the See also:establishment of the Visigothic See also:kingdom in See also:Aquitaine, the occupation of a great part of See also:Spain by Vandals and Sueves (See also:Suebi). Under Valentinian III. the Vandals founded their kingdom in See also:North See also:Africa, the Visigoths shared Spain with the Sueves, the Burgundian kingdom was founded in S.E. See also:Gaul. The last Roman See also:possession in Gaul passed to the Franks in 486 (see GOTHS; VANDALS; FRANKS). It is significant that the chief defender of the Empire against the Germans who were dismembering it were men of German See also:race. Stilicho, who defended See also:Italy against See also:Alaric, See also:Aetius, whose great work was to protect the imperial possessions in Gaul, and See also:Ricimer. It was also a German, Fravitta, who played a decisive part in suppressing a formidable Gothic See also:movement which menaced the See also:throne of Arcadius in 399-400. It was characteristic of this transformation of Europe that the Germans, who were imbued with a profound reverence for the Empire and its prestige, founded their kingdoms on Roman See also:soil in the first instance as " federates " of the Emperor, on the basis of formal contracts, defining their relations to the native provincials; they seized their dominions not as conquerors, but as subjects. The See also:double position of Alaric himself, as both See also: The See also:escape of the eastern provinces from the See also:fate of the western illustrates the fact that the strength of the Empire See also:lay in the east. These provinces were more populous and presented greater obstacles to the invaders, who followed the See also:line of least resistance. But it was of immense importance that throughout this period the Empire was able to preserve a practically unbroken peace with its great eastern rival. The struggle with Persia, terminated in 364 by the peace of Jovian, was not renewed till the beginning of the 6th century. It was of greater importance that the rulers pursued a discreet and moderate policy, both in See also:financial See also:administration and in See also:foreign affairs; and the result was that at the end of a See also:hundred years the diminished Empire was strong and consolidated. Theodosius II. was a weak See also:prince, but his government was ably conducted by Anthemius, by his See also:sister Pulcheria and by the See also:eunuch Chrysaphius. , His reign was important for the Armenian question. Theodosius I. had committed the See also:error of consenting to a division of this buffer state in the Roman and See also:Persian See also:spheres of influence, Persia having much the larger. The See also:Sassanid government tried to suppress the use of the Greek language. But the government of Theodosius II. officially supported the enterprise of translating the See also:Bible into Armenian (Mesrob had just invented the Armenian See also:alphabet), and this initiated the See also:production of an abundant literature of See also:translations from the Greek, which secured the perpetual connexion of See also:Armenia with European culture, and not with See also:Oriental. This reign is also distinguished by the See also:building of the great landwalls of Constantinople, by the foundation of a university there and by the collection of the imperial See also:laws in the Codex Theodosianus, which is a mine of material for the social See also:condition of the Empire. It reveals to us the decline of municipal See also:liberty, the decay of the middle classes in the West, the evils of the oppressive fiscal See also:system and an appalling See also:paralysis of Roman administration which had once been so efficient; it shows how the best-intentioned emperors were unable to See also:control the See also:governors and check their corruption; and discloses a disorganization which facilitated the dismemberment of the Empire by the barbarians. In the reign of Zeno it seemed probable that an Ostrogothic kingdom would be established in the See also:Balkan peninsula, but the danger was diverted to Italy (see GOTHS). The kingdom which See also:Theodoric founded there was, in its constitutional aspect, a continuation of Odoacer's regime. He, like Odoacer and Alaric, held the double position of a German king and a Roman official. He was magister militum as well as rex. His powers were defined by See also:capitulations which were arranged with the emperor Anastasius and loyally observed. The right of legislation was reserved to the emperor, and Theodoric never claimed it; but for all See also:practical purposes he was independent. In the 6th century the emperor Justinian, whose talents were equal to his ambitions, found himself, through the financial prudence of his predecessors, in a position to undertake the reconquest of some of the lost western provinces. The Vandal power had declined, and Africa was won back in one See also:campaign by See also:Belisarius in 533. The conquest of Italy was far more difficult. Begun by Belisarius in 535, it was not completed till 554, by See also:Narses. A portion of See also:southern Spain was also won from the Visigoths, so that the Romans again commanded the western straits. Justinian, possessed by large ideas and intoxicated with the See also:majesty of Rome, aspired to be a great conqueror, a great lawgiver, a great pontiff, a great diplomatist, a great builder, and in each of these spheres his reign holds a conspicuous See also:place in the See also:annals of the Empire. His legal work alone, or the building of See also:Santa See also:Sophia was enough to ensure him immortal fame. But deep shadows See also:balance the splendour. The reconquest of Africa was thoroughly justified and advantageous, but Italy was bought at a ruinous cost. In the first place, the Persian empire was at this time ruled by one of its greatest See also:kings, See also:Chosroes I. (q.v.), who was far from peacefully inclined. Justinian was engaged in a long Persian and a long Gothic See also:war at the same time, and the state was unequal to the See also:strain. In the second place, it was all-important for his western policy to secure the See also:goodwill of the Italian provincials and the Roman See also:bishop, and for this purpose he involved himself in an ecclesiastical policy (see below) which caused the final See also:alienation of the Syrian and See also:Egyptian provinces. The reconquest of the West was See also:purchased by the disunion of the East. Thirdly, the enormous expenses of the Italian and Persian wars, augmented by architectural undertakings, caused a policy of financial oppression which hung as a See also:cloud over all the brilliance of his reign, and led to the decline which ensued upon his death. Nor is it to be forgotten that he had at the same time to fulfil the task of protecting the Danube against the Germans, Slays and Bulgarians who constantly threatened the Illyrian provinces. He spared no expense in building forts and walls. Justinian's name will always be associated with that of the gifted Theodora, an actress of doubtful fame in her See also:early life, who shared his throne. Their See also:mosaic portraits are preserved in the contemporary See also: Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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