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HELVETII ('El ouipeot, 'EXI3ilrriol)

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Originally appearing in Volume V13, Page 255 of the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica.
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HELVETII ('El ouipeot, 'EXI3ilrriol) , a See also:Celtic See also:people, whose See also:original See also:home was the See also:country between the Hercynian See also:forest (probably the Rauhe See also:Alp), the See also:Rhine and the See also:Main (See also:Tacitus, Germania, 28). In See also:Caesar's See also:time they appear to have been driven farther See also:west, since, according to him (See also:Bell. See also:Gall. i. 2. 3) their boundaries were on the W. the See also:Jura, on the S. the See also:Rhone and the See also:Lake of See also:Geneva, on the N. and E. the Rhine as far as Lake See also:Constance. They thus inhabited the western See also:part of See also:modern See also:Switzerland. They were divided into four cantons (pagi), See also:common affairs being managed by the cantonal assemblies. They possessed the elements of a higher See also:civilization (See also:gold coinage, the See also:Greek See also:alphabet), and, according to Caesar, were the bravest people of See also:Gaul. The reports of gold and See also:plunder spread by the See also:Cimbri and Teutones on their way to See also:southern Gaul induced the Helvetii to follow their example. In 107, under Divico, two of their tribes, the Tougeni and Tigurini, crossed the Jura and made their way as far as Aginnum (See also:Agen on the See also:Garonne), where they utterly defeated the See also:Romans under L. See also:Cassius See also:Longinus, and forced them to pass under the yoke (See also:Livy, Epit. 65; according to a different See also:reading, the See also:battle took See also:place near the Lake of Geneva).

In toe the Helvetii joined the Cimbri in the invasion of See also:

Italy, but after the defeat of the latter by See also:Marius they returned home. In 58, hard pressed by the Germans aiel incited by one of their princes, Orgetorix, they resolved to found a new home west of the Jura. Orgetorix was thrown into See also:prison, being suspected of a See also:design to make himself See also:king, but the Helvetii themselves persisted in their See also:plan. Joined by the Rauraci, Tulingi, Latobrigi and some of the See also:Boii—according to their own reckoning 368,000 in all—they agreed to meet on the 28th of 1 Some of the delegates, especially See also:Bucer, were anxious to effect a See also:union of the Reformed and Lutheran Churches. There was also a See also:desire to See also:lay the See also:Confession before the See also:council summoned at See also:Mantua by See also:Pope See also:Paul III. See also:March at Geneva and to advance through the territory of the provided for, he proceeded to enjoy See also:life to the utmost, with See also:Allobroges. They were overtaken, however, by Caesar •at See also:Bibracte, defeated and forced to submit. Those who survived were sent back home to defend the frontier of the Rhine against See also:German invaders. During the See also:civil See also:wars and for some time after the See also:death of Caesar little is heard of the Helvetii. Under See also:Augustus Helvetia (not so called till later times, earlier ager Helvetiorum) proper was included under Gallia Belgica. Two See also:Roman colonies had previously been founded at Noviodunum (Colonia Julia Equestris, mod. Nyon) and at Colonia Rauracorum (afterwards See also:Augusta Rauracorum, Augst near See also:Basel) to keep See also:watch over the inhabitants, who were treated with generosity by their conquerors.

Under the name of foederati they retained their original constitution and See also:

division into four cantons. They were under an See also:obligation to furnish a contingent to the Roman See also:army for See also:foreign service, but were allowed to maintain garrisons of their own, and their magistrates had the right to See also:call out a See also:militia. Their See also:religion was not interfered with; they managed their own See also:local affairs and kept their own See also:language, although Latin was used officially. Their See also:chief towns were Aventicum (Avenches) and Vindonissa (Windisch). Under Tiberius the Helvetii were separated from Gallia Belgica and made part of Germania See also:Superior. After the death of See also:Galba (A.n. 60, having refused submission to See also:Vitellius, their See also:land was devastated by Alienus See also:Caecina, and only the eloquent See also:appeal of one of their leaders named See also:Claudius Cossus saved them from annihilation. Under See also:Vespasian they attained the height of their prosperity. He greatly increased the importance of Aventicum, where his See also:father had carried on business. Its inhabitants, with those of other towns, probably obtained the ius Latinum, had a See also:senate; a council of decuriones, a See also:prefect of public See also:works and flamens of Augustus. After the See also:extension of the eastern frontier, the troops were withdrawn from the garrisons and fortresses, and Helvetia, See also:free from warlike disturbances, gradually became completely romanized. Aventicum had an See also:amphitheatre, a public gymnasium and an See also:academy with Roman professors.

Roads were made wherever possible, and See also:

commerce rapidly See also:developed. The old Celtic religion was also supplanted by the Roman. The west of the country, however, was more susceptible to Roman See also:influence, and hence preserved its See also:independence against See also:barbarian invaders longer than its eastern portion. 'During the reign of See also:Gallienus (26o-268) the See also:Alamanni overran the country; and although See also:Probus, See also:Constantius Chlorus, See also:Julian, Valentinian I. and See also:Gratian to some extent checked the inroads of the barbarians, it never regained its former prosperity. In the subdivision of Gaul in the 4th See also:century, Helvetia, with the territory of the See also:Sequani and Rauraci, formed the Provincia See also:Maxima Sequanorum, the chief See also:town of which was Vesontio (See also:Besancon). Under See also:Honorius (395-423) it was probably definitely occupied by the Alamanni, except in the west, where the small portion remaining to the Romani was ceded in 436 by See also:Aetius to the Burgundians. See L. von See also:Haller, Helvetien unter den Romern (See also:Bern, 181 I); T. Momntsen, See also:Die Schweiz in romischer Zeit (See also:Zurich, 1854) ; J. Brosi, Die Kelten and Althelvetier (Solothurn, 1851); L. See also:Hug and R. See also:Stead, " Switzerland " in See also:Story of the Nations, See also:xxvl.; C. Dandliker, Geschichte der Schweiz (1892-1895), and See also:English See also:translation (of a shorter See also:history by the same) by E.

See also:

Salisbury (1899); Die Schweiz unto den Remern (See also:anonymous) published by the Historischer Verein of St Gall (Scheitlin and Zollikofer, St Gall, 1862); and G. Wyss, "t)ber das romische Helvetien " in Archie See also:file schweizerische Geschichte, vii. (1851). For Caesar's See also:campaign against the Helvetii, see T. R. See also:Holmes, Caesar's See also:Conquest of Gaul (1899) and See also:Mommsen, Hist. of See also:Rome (Eng. trans.), bk. v. ch. 7; See also:ancient authorities in A. Holder, Altkeltischer Sprachschatz (1896), S.C. Elvetii. HELV$TIUS, See also:CLAUDE ADRIEN (1715-1771), See also:French philosopher and litterateur, was See also:born in See also:Paris in See also:January 1715. He was descended from a See also:family of physicians, whose original name was See also:Schweitzer (latinized as Helvetius). His grandfather introduced the use of See also:ipecacuanha; his father was first physician to See also:Queen See also:Marie Leczinska of See also:France.

Claude Adrien was trained for a See also:

financial career, but he occupied his spare time with See also:writing verses. At the See also:age of twenty-three, at the queen's See also:request, he was appointed See also:farmer-See also:general, a See also:post of See also:great responsibility and dignity See also:worth a See also:ioo,000 crowns a See also:year. Thus the help of his See also:wealth and liberality, his See also:literary and See also:artistic tastes. As he See also:grew older, however, his social successes ceased, and he began to See also:dream of more lasting distinctions, stimulated by the success of See also:Maupertuis as a mathematician, of See also:Voltaire as a poet, of See also:Montesquieu as a philosopher. The mathematical dream seems to have produced nothing; his poetical ambitions resulted in the poem called Le See also:Bonheur (published posthumously, with an See also:account of Helvetius's life and works, by C. F. de See also:Saint-See also:Lambert, 1773), in which he develops the See also:idea that true happiness is only to be found in making the See also:interest of one that of all; his philosophical studies ended in the See also:production of his famous See also:book De l'esprit. It was characteristic of the See also:man that, as soon as bethought his See also:fortune sufficient, he gave up his post of farmer-general, -and retired to an See also:estate in the country, where he employed his large means in the See also:relief of the poor, the encouragement of See also:agriculture and the development of See also:industries. De l'esprit (Eng. trans. by W. Mudford, 1807), intended to be the See also:rival of Montesquieu's L'Esprit See also:des leis, appeared in 1758. It attracted immediate See also:attention and aroused the most formidable opposition, especially from the dauphin, son of See also:Louis XV. The See also:Sorbonne condemned the book, the priests persuaded the See also:court that it was full of the most dangerous doctrines, and the author, terrified at the See also:storm he had raised, wrote three See also:separate retractations; yet, in spite of his protestations of orthodoxy, he had to give up his See also:office at the court, and the book was publicly burned by the hangman. The virulence of the attacks upon the See also:work, as much as its See also:intrinsic merit, caused it to be widely read; it was translated into almost all the See also:languages of See also:Europe.

Voltaire said that it was full of commonplaces, and that what was original was false or problematical; See also:

Rousseau declared that the very benevolence of the author gave the See also:lie to his 'principles; See also:Grimm thought that all the ideas in the book were borrowed from See also:Diderot; according to Madame du See also:Deffand, Helvetius had raised such a storm by saying openly what every one. thought in See also:secret; Madame de Graffigny averred that all the See also:good things in the book had been picked up in her own See also:salon. In 1764 Helvetius visited See also:England, and the next year, on the invitation of See also:Frederick II., he went to See also:Berlin, where the king paid him marked attention. He then returned to his country estate and passed the See also:remainder of his life in perfect tranquillity. He died on the 26th of See also:December 1771. His See also:philosophy belongs to the utilitarian school. The four discussions of which his book consists have been thus summed up: (1) All man's faculties may be reduced to See also:physical sensation, even'memory, comparison, See also:judgment; our only difference from the See also:lower animals lies in our See also:external organization. (2) Self-interest, founded on the love of See also:pleasure and the fear of See also:pain, is the See also:sole See also:spring of judgment, See also:action, See also:affection; self-See also:sacrifice is prompted by the fact that the sensation of pleasure outweighs the accompanying pain; it is thus the result of deliberate calculation; we have no See also:liberty of choice between good and evil; there is no such thing as See also:absolute right—ideas of See also:justice and injustice See also:change according to customs. (3) All intellects are equal; their apparent inequalities do not depend on a more or less perfect organization, but have their cause in the unequal desire for instruction, and this desire springs from passions, of which all men commonly well organized are susceptible to the same degree; and we can, therefore, all love See also:glory with the same See also:enthusiasm and we' owe all to See also:education. (4) In this discourse the author treats of the ideas which are attached to such words as See also:genius, See also:imagination, See also:talent, See also:taste, good sense, &c. The only original ideas in his See also:system are those of the natural equality of intelligences and the omnipotence of education, neither of which, however, Is generally accepted, though both were prominent in the system of J. S. See also:Mill.

There is no doubt that his thinking was unsystematic; but many of his critics have entirely misrepresented him (e.g. See also:

Cairns in his Unbelief in the Eighteenth Century). As J. M. See also:Robertson (See also:Short History of Free Thought) points out, he had great influence upon See also:Bentham, and C. See also:Beccaria states that he himself was largely inspired by Helvetius in his See also:attempt to modify penal See also:laws. The keynote of his thought was that public See also:ethics has a utilitarian basis, and he insisted strongly on the importance of culture in See also:national development. A sort of supplement to the De l'esprit, called De 1'homme, de ses facultes intellectuelles et de son education (Eng. trans. by W. See also:Hooper, 1777), found among his See also:manuscripts, was published after his death, but created little interest. There is a See also:complete edition of the works of Helvetius, published at Paris, 1818. For an estimate of his work and his place among the philosophers of the 18th century see See also:Victor See also:Cousin's Philosophie sensualiste (1863); P. L.

Lezaud, Resumes philosophiques (1853); F. D. See also:

Maurice, in his Modern Philosophy (1862), pp. 537 seq.; J. See also:Morley, Diderot and the Encyclopaedists (See also:London, 1878) ; D. G. Mostratos, Die Padagogik des Helvetius (Berlin, 1891) ; A. Guillois, Le Salon de Madame Helvetius (1894) ; A. Piazzi, Le Idee filosofche specialmente pedagogiche de C. A. Helvetius (See also:Milan, 1889); G. Plekhanov, Beitrage zur Geschichte des Materialismus (See also:Stuttgart, 1896) ; L.

Limentani, Le Teorie psicologiche di C. A. Helvetius (See also:

Verona, 1902) ; A. See also:Keim, Helvetius, sa See also:vie et son leuvre (1907).

End of Article: HELVETII ('El ouipeot, 'EXI3ilrriol)

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