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JUJUY
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JUJUY , a See also:northern See also:province of the See also:Argentine See also:Republic, bounded N. and N.W. by See also:Bolivia, N.E., E., S. and S.W. by See also:Salta, and W. by the Los See also:Andes territory. Pop. (1895), 49,713; (1905, estimate), 55,450, including many mestizos. See also:Area, 18,977 sq. m., the greater See also:part being mountainous. The province is traversed from N. to S. by three distinct ranges be-longing to the See also:great central Andean See also:plateau: the Sierra de See also:Santa Catalina, the Sierra de Humahuaca, and the Sierras de See also:Zenta and Santa See also:Victoria. In the S.E. See also:angle of the province are the See also:low, isolated ranges of Alumbre and Santa See also:Barbara. Between the more eastern of these ranges are valleys of surpassing fertility, watered by the Rio Grande de Jujuy, a large tributary of the Bermejo. The western part, however, is a high plateau (parts of which are 11,500 ft. above See also:sea-level), whose See also:general characteristics are those of the Puna regions farther See also:west. The See also:surface of this high plateau is broken, semi-arid and desolate, having a See also:Constantinople in 331,1 the son of See also:Julius See also:Constantius and his wife Basilina, and See also:nephew of See also:Constantine the Great. He was thus a member of the See also:dynasty under whose auspices See also:Christianity became the established See also:religion of See also:Rome. The name Flavius he inherited from his paternal grandfather Constantius Chlorus; Julianus came from his maternal grandfather; See also:Claudius had been assumed by Constantine's See also:family in See also:order to assert a connexion with Claudius Gothicus. See also:Julian last his See also:mother not many months after he was See also:born. He was only six when his imperial See also:uncle died; and one of his earliest memories must have been the fearful See also:massacre of his See also:father and kinsfolk, in the See also:interest and more or less at the instigation of the sons of Constantine. Only Julian and his See also:elder See also:half-See also:brother See also:Gallus were spared, Gallus being too See also:ill and Julian too See also:young to excite the fear or justify the See also:cruelty of the murderers. Gallus was banished, but Julian was allowed to remain in Constantinople, where he was carefully educated under the super-See also:vision of the family See also:eunuch Mardonius, and of See also:Eusebius, See also:bishop of See also:Nicomedia. About 344 Gallus was recalled, and the two See also:brothers were removed to Macellum, a remote and lonely See also:castle in See also:Cappadocia. Julian was trained to the profession of the See also:Christian religion; but he became See also:early attracted to the old faith, or rather to the idealized See also:amalgam of paganism and See also:philosophy which was current among his teachers, the rhetoricians. Cut off from all sympathy with the reigning belief by the terrible See also:fate of his family, and with no prospect of a public career, he turned with all the eagerness of an enthusiastic temperament to the See also:literary and philosophic studies of the See also:time. The old Hellenic See also:world had an irresistible attraction for him. Love' for its culture was in Julian's mind intimately associated with See also:loyalty to its religion.
In the meantime the course of events had See also:left as See also:sole autocrat of the See also:Roman See also:Empire his See also:cousin Constantius, who, feeling himself unequal to the enormous task, called Julian's brother Gallus to a See also:share of See also:power, and in See also: But his definite See also:conversion to paganism was attributed to the neoplatonist See also:Maximus of See also:Ephesus, who may have visited him at Nicomedia. The downfall of Gallus (354), who had been appointed See also:governor of the See also:East, again exposed Julian to the greatest danger. By his rash and headstrong conduct Gallus had incurred the enmity of Constantius and the eunuchs, his confidential ministers, and was put to See also:death. Julian See also:fell under a like suspicion, and narrowly escaped the same fate. For some months he was confined at See also:Milan (See also:Mediolanum) till at the intercession of the empress Eusebia, who always See also:felt kindly towards him, permission was given him to retire to a small See also:property in See also:Bithynia. While he was on his way, Constantius recalled him, but allowed—or rather ordered—him to take up his See also:residence at See also:Athens. The few months he spent there (See also:July–See also:October 355) were probably the happiest of his See also:life. The See also:emperor Constantius and Julian were now the sole surviving male members of the family of Constantine; and, as the emperor again felt himself oppressed by the cares of See also:government, there was no alternative but to See also:call Julian to his assistance. At the instance of the empress he was summoned to Milan, where Constantius. bestowed upon him the See also:hand of his See also:sister See also:Helena, together with the See also:title of Caesar and the government of See also:Gaul. A task of extreme difficulty awaited him beyond the See also:Alps. During See also:recent troubles the See also:Alamanni and other See also:German tribes had crossed the See also:Rhine; they had burned many flourishing cities, 1 For the date of Julian's See also:birth see See also:Gibbon's Decline and Fall (ed. See also:Bury), ii. 247, See also:note 11. The choice seems to See also:lie between May 331 and May 332. If the former be adopted, Julian must have died in the See also:thirty-third, not the thirty-second, See also:year of his See also:age (as stated in See also:Ammianus See also:Marcellinus, See also:xxv. 3, 23).and extended their ravages far into the interior of Gaul. The See also:internal government of the province had also fallen into great confusion. In spite of his inexperience, Julian quickly brought affairs into order. He completely overthrew the Alamanni in the great See also:battle of See also:Strassburg (See also:August 357). The Frankish tribes which had settled on the western See also:bank of the See also:lower Rhine were reduced to submission. In Gaul he rebuilt the cities which had been laid See also:waste, re-established the See also:administration on a just and secure footing, and as far as possible lightened the taxes; which weighed so heavily on the poor provincials. See also:Paris was the usual residence of Julian during his government of Gaul, and his name has become inseparably associated with the early See also:history of the See also:city. Julian's reputation was now established. He was general of a victorious See also:army enthusiastically attached to him and governor of a province which he had saved from ruin; but he had also become an See also:object of fear and See also:jealousy at the imperial See also:court. Constantius accordingly resolved to weaken his power. A threatened invasion of the Persians was made an excuse for with-See also:drawing some of the best legions from the Gallic army. Julian recognized the covert purpose of this, yet proceeded to fulfil the commands of the emperor. A sudden See also:movement of the legions themselves decided otherwise. At Paris, on the See also:night of the parting banquet, they forced their way into Julian's See also:tent, and, proclaiming him emperor, offered him the alternative either of accepting the lofty title or of an instant death. Julian accepted the empire, and sent an See also:embassy with a deferential See also:message to Constantius. The message being contemptuously disregarded, both sides prepared for a decisive struggle. After a march of unexampled rapidity through the See also:Black See also:Forest and down the See also:Danube, Julian reached Sirmium, and was on the way to Constantinople, when he received See also:news of the death of Constantius, who had set out from See also:Syria to meet him, at Mopsucrene in See also:Cilicia (Nov. 3, 361). Without further trouble Julian found himself everywhere acknowledged the sole ruler of the Roman Empire; it is even asserted that Constantius himself on his death-See also:bed had designated him his successor. Julian entered Constantinople on the xlth of See also:December 361. Julian had already made a public avowal of paganism, of which he had been a secret adherent from the age of twenty. It was no See also:ordinary profession, but the expression of a strong and even enthusiastic conviction; the restoration of the pagan See also:worship was to be the great aim and controlling principle of his government. His reign was too short to show what precise See also:form the pagan revival might ultimately have taken, how far his feelings might have become embittered by his conflict with the Christian faith, whether persecution, violence and See also:civil See also:war might not have taken the See also:place of the moral suasion which was the method he originally affected. He issued an See also:edict of universal See also:toleration; but in many respects he used his imperial See also:influence unfairly to advance the See also:work of restoration. In order to deprive the Christians of the advantages of culture, and discredit them as an ignorant See also:sect, he forbade them to See also:teach rhetoric. The symbols of paganism and of the imperial dignity were so artfully interwoven on the See also:standards of the legions that they could not pay the usual See also:homage to the emperor without seeming to offer worship to the gods; and, when the soldiers came forward to receive- the customary donative, they were required to throw a handful of See also:incense on the See also:altar. Without directly excluding Christians from the high offices of See also:state, he held that the worshippers of the gods ought to have the preference. In short, though there was no See also:direct persecution, he exerted much more than a moral pressure to restore the power and See also:prestige of the old faith. Having spent the See also:winter of 361–362 at Constantinople, Julian proceeded to See also:Antioch to prepare for his great expedition against See also:Persia. His stay there was a curious See also:episode in his life. It is doubtful whether his pagan convictions or his ascetic life, after the See also:fashion of an See also:antique philosopher, gave most offence to the so-called Christians of the dissolute city. They soon See also:grew heartily tired of each other, and Julian took up his winter quarters at See also:Tarsus, from which in early See also:spring he marched against Persia. At the See also:head of a powerful and well-appointed army he advanced through See also:Mesopotamia and See also:Assyria as far as See also:Ctesiphon, near which he crossed the See also:Tigris, in See also:face of a See also:Persian army which he defeated. Misled by the treacherous See also:advice of a Persian nobleman, he desisted from the See also:siege, and set out to seek the See also:main army of the enemy under See also:Shapur II. (q.v.). After a See also:long, useless march he was forced to See also:retreat, and found himself enveloped by the whole Persian army, in a waterless and desolate See also:country, at the hottest See also:season of the year. The See also:Romans repulsed the enemy in many an obstinate battle, but on the 26th of See also:June 363 Julian, who was ever in the front, was mortally wounded. The same night he died in his tent. In the most See also:authentic historian of his reign, Ammianus Marcellinus, we find a See also:noble speech, which he is said to have addressed to his afflicted See also:officers. Soon after his death the rumour spread that the fatal See also:wound had been inflicted by a Christian in the Roman army. The well-known statement, first found in See also:Theodoret (fl. 5th See also:century), that Julian threw his See also:blood towards See also:heaven, exclaiming, " See also:Thou hast conquered, 0 Galilean?" is probably a development of the See also:account of his death in the poems of Ephraem Syrus. From Julian's unique position as the last See also:champion of a dying polytheism, his See also:character has always excited interest. Authors such as See also:Gregory of Nazianzus have heaped the fiercest anathemas upon him; but a just and sympathetic See also:criticism finds many noble qualities in his character. In childhood and youth he had learned to regard Christianity as a persecuting force. The only sympathetic See also:friends he met were among the pagan rhetoricians and philosophers; and he found a suitable outlet for his restless and inquiring mind only in the studies of See also:ancient See also:Greece. In this way he was attracted to the old paganism; but it was a paganism idealized by the philosophy of the time. In other respects Julian was no unworthy successor of the Antonines. Though brought up in a studious and pedantic solitude, he was no sooner called to the government of Gaul than he displayed all the See also:energy, the hardihood and the See also:practical sagacity of an old Roman. In See also:temperance, self-See also:control and zeal for the public See also:good, as he understood it, he was unsurpassed. To these Roman qualities he added the culture, literary instincts and speculative curiosity of a See also:Greek. One of the most remark-able features of his public life was the perfect ease and mastery with which he associated the cares of war and statesman-See also:ship with the assiduous cultivation of literature and philosophy. Yet even his devotion to culture was not See also:free from pedantry and dilettantism. His contemporaries observed in him a want of naturalness. He had not the moral See also:health or the composed and reticent manhood of a Roman, or the spontaneity of a Greek. He was never at See also:rest; in the rapid torrent of his conversation he was See also:apt to run himself out of breath; his manner was jerky and spasmodic. He showed quite a deferential regard for the See also:sophists and rhetoricians of the time, and advanced them to high offices of state; there was real cause for fear that he would introduce the government of pedants in the Roman empire. Last of all, his love for the old philosophy was sadly disfigured by his devotion to the old superstitions. He was greatly given to See also:divination; he was noted for the number of his sacrificial victims. Wits applied to him the joke that had been passed on See also:Marcus Aurelius: " The See also: See also:Pal., ix. 365, 368) are of some interest. (6) Kara Xpcoriavwv (Adversus Christianos) in three books, an attack on Christianity written during the Persian See also:campaign, is lost. See also:Theodosius II. ordered all copies of it to be destroyed, and our knowledge of its contents is derived almost entirely from the Contra Julianum of See also:Cyril, bishop of See also:Alexandria, written sixty years later (see Juliani librorum contra Christianos quae supersunt, ed. C. J. See also:Neumann 1880). See also:English See also:Translations: Select See also:works by J. See also:buncombe (1784) containing all except the first seven orations (viii. and the See also:fable from vii. are included) : the theosophical addresses to King Helios and the Mother of the Gods by See also: 2. See also:Modern. For works before 1878 see R. Engelmann, Scriplores Graeci (8th ed., by E. Preuss, 1880). Of later works the most important are G. H. Rendall, The Emperor Julian, Paganism and Christianity (1879) ; Alice See also:Gardner, Julian, Philosopher and Emperor (1895) ; G. See also:Negri, Julian the Apostate (Eng. trans., 1905) ; E. See also: E. See also:Sandys, Hist. of Classical Scholarship (1906), p. 356; W. See also:Christ, Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur (1898)603 ; J. See also:Geffcken,"Kaiser Julianus and die Streitschriften seiner Gegner," in Neue Jahrb. f. das klassische Altertum (1908), pp. 161-195. The See also:sketch by Gibbon (Decline and Fall, chs. xix., xxii.-See also:xxiv.) and the articles by J. Words-See also:worth in See also: H. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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