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ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS
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ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS , sometimes called ZOOLOGICAL PARKS, institutions in which See also:wild animals are kept in captivity. Their See also:primary See also:object is to gratify the See also:pleasure most persons take in viewing at See also:close range the curious and beautiful living products of nature, but they serve also as means of instruction in natural See also:history, providing material for museums and for investigations in See also:comparative See also:anatomy and See also:pathology, while they may have a commercial value as pleasure resorts, or as show grounds for the display of animals that have been imported or bred for See also:sale. .
According to See also:Captain See also:Stanley See also:Flower, director of the Zoological Gardens at Giza, See also:Cairo, See also:Egypt, the See also:ancient Egyptians kept various See also:species of wild animals in captivity, but the first Zoo-logical See also:Garden of which there is definite knowledge was founded in See also:China by the first See also:emperor of the Chou See also:dynasty, who reigned about 'too B.C. This was called the " Intelligence See also:Park," and appears to have had a scientific and educational object. The ancient Greeks and See also:Romans kept in captivity large See also:numbers of such animals as leopards, lions, bears, elephants, antelopes, giraffes, camels, rhinoceroses and hippopotamuses, as well as ostriches and crocodiles, but these were destined for slaughter at the gladiatorial shows. In later times royal persons and See also:great feudal magnates frequently kept menageries of wild animals, aviaries and aquaria, and it is from these that See also:modern public Gardens have taken their origin. See also: Louis XIII. kept some animals at See also:Versailles, whilst his son Louis XIV. founded the famous " Menagerie du Parc" at Versailles, which received many animals from Cairo, was maintained for over a See also:century, and furnished much valuable material to See also:French naturalists and anatomists. It gradually decayed, however, and was almost extinguished by the See also:mob in 1789. In 1793 the Paris Museum of Natural History was re-established by See also:law, and See also:Buffon's See also:idea of attaching to it a menagerie was carried out; the latter, as the collection in the Jardin See also:des Plantes, still survives.
In See also:Germany the elector See also:Augustus I. founded a menagerie at See also:Dresden in 1554. In the New See also:World, according to See also:Prescott, See also: The See also:Khartum Zoological Gardens are See also:free to the public and are under the See also:control of the See also:municipality, but the collection of animals is under the See also:Game Preservation Department. The See also:Transvaal Zoo-logical Gardens at See also:Pretoria are a government institution, and are associated with the Museum. See also:America, North.—The Zoological Park at See also:Bronx See also:Borough, New See also:York See also:City, opened in 1899, is one of the largest in the world. It is See also:con-trolled by the Zoological Society of New York, with representatives of the municipality of the City of New York, and is financed largely out of municipal funds, and is open free to the public five days a See also:week. The Park occupies nearly 300 acres, of great natural beauty, which has been Increased by the judicious arts of the landscape gardener. It contains many See also:fine buildings, designed on the most modern lines. but its See also:special feature is a See also:series of spacious enlosures for large herds of bison and See also:deer. In a sense it serves also as a See also:national reserve, and has already been an important See also:factor in the preservation of the See also:American bison. The itational Zoological Park at See also:Washington, D.C., was founded by See also:Congress in 1889–1890 " for the See also:advancement of See also:science and the instruction and recreation of the See also:people." The site was See also:purchased by the See also:United States government, and all the expenses come from national funds, the management being vested in the Smithsonian Institution. The Park consists of about 265 acres of undulating See also:land with natural See also:woods and rocks, traversed by a See also:gorge cut by See also:Rock See also:Creek, a tributary of the See also:Potomac. The See also:river and gorge extend into the See also:country far beyond the Park, and in addition to the animals that have been introduced, there are many wild creatures living in their native freedom, such as See also:musk rats in the creek, See also:grey squirrels, crested cardinals and See also:turkey buzzards. The varied natural conditions See also:form an almost ideal site for a collection of animals; great cafe and skill have been expended on the designing and construction of the houses, the collection receives many accessions from various government departments, including the See also:foreign consular service, and the whole institution is rapidly becoming a See also:model of what is possible. The Zoological Gardens in Fairmount Park, See also:Philadelphia, resemble the gardens of the Zoological Society of See also:London, on which they were modelled. They are controlled by the Zoo-logical Society of Philadelphia, founded in 1859, and are supported partly by subscriptions of members, partly by See also:gate-See also:money and partly by an See also:allowance from the city of Philadelphia. They contain an admirable collection, well housed and carefully managed, a specially interesting feature being the careful See also:quarantine See also:system of new arrivals and the See also:post-mortem See also:examinations of animals that have died. There are many smaller collections in the United States and several in See also:Canada, but none of these See also:present features of special See also:interest. America, See also:South.—The Zoological Gardens at Buenos Aires are supported by the municipality, and contain many interesting animals, well housed in beautiful surroundings. The director issues a popular illustrated See also:guide and a valuable quarterly scientific See also:journal. At See also:Para, See also:Brazil, is a See also:good collection attached to the Museum Goeldi, and there are unimportant collections at Rio de Janeiro and See also:Bahia. See also:Asia.—There are many small collections in different parts of Asia, but the only garden of great interest is at Alipore, See also:Calcutta, supported chiefly by gate-money and a contribution from government, and managed by an honorary See also:committee. It was established in 1875 by the government of See also:Bengal, in co-operation with the public, and is 33 acres in See also:area. An extremely interesting collection is maintained, the variety of See also:bird See also:life, both feral and in captivity, being notable. See also:Australia and New See also:Zealand.—There are Zoological Gardens at See also:Melbourne (founded in 1857), See also:Adelaide, See also:Sydney and See also:Perth, and small gardens at See also:Wellington, New Zealand, supported partly by private See also:societies and partly by the municipalities. These collections are not specially rich in the very interesting and See also:peculiar native See also:fauna, but devote themselves preponderatingly to imported animals. See also:Europe.—There are a large number of zoological gardens in Europe. but those of real importance are not numerous. The
Imperial Menagerie of the See also:palace of Schonbrunn, See also:Vienna, was founded about 1752. The public are admitted free to the greater See also:part of the grounds, but the gardens and collection are the See also:property of and are supported by the emperor of See also:Austria. The collection is fine and well cared for in beautiful surroundings. The garden and large menagerie of the Royal Zoological Society of See also:Antwerp were founded in 1843, and have been maintained at a very high level. The collection is not usually very rich in species, but there have been great and See also:long-continued successes in the breeding of large animals such as hippopotamuses, lions and ante-See also:lopes, and a very large business is done in domesticated birds, See also:water-See also:fowl and cage birds. The See also:annual sales of wild animals, held in the Gardens, chiefly surplus stock from various See also:European Gardens, are famous. The See also:revenue is derived partly from subscriptions, partly from gate-money, from the fine See also:concert-See also: Messrs Jennison have maintained since 1831 a Zoological Collection in their pleasure Park at Belle Vue, See also:Manchester. The animals exhibited are selected chiefly because of their popular interest, but the arrangements for See also:housing are. specially Ingenious and successful, those for monkeys and See also:snakes being notable. The Zoologisk Have at See also:Copenhagen, founded in 18J9, contains a good collection, with a specially well-designed See also:monkey-See also:house. At See also:Lyons and at See also:Marseilles in See also:France there are beautifully situated Gardens with small collections, in each See also:case owned and controlled by the municipalities. In Paris there are two well-known Gardens. That of the Jardin des Plantes was founded in 1793 and is under the control of the Museum authorities. It is open free to the public and generally contains a good collection of mammals. The larger and better known Jardin d'Acclimatation in the Bois de See also:Boulogne is owned and conducted by a private See also:company. It was founded in 1858 and is beautifully situated and well laid out. In addition to wild animals it usually contains many domesticated creatures of commercial value. In recent years it has been somewhat neglected and presents no features of special interest, but efforts are being made to revive its prosperity. Germany contained in 1910 nineteen Zoological Gardens in active existence whilst several others were in See also:process of formation. In most cases they are associated with concert-halls and open-See also:air restaurants, which See also:account for much of their material prosperity, but the natural See also:taste of the people for wild animals, and the increasing scientific and commercial enter-prise of the nation have combined to make the collections rich and interesting. The great Gardens at See also:Berlin were founded in 1844, and belong to a private company, but owe much to the interest and beneficence of the Royal House. The collection is extremely good, the houses are well constructed and sumptuously decorated, and the See also:general management is conducted on the most adequate scientific lines. The Zoological Gardens at See also:Breslau, founded in 1863 and owned by a private company, although not large, contain many fine buildings and are a notably well-managed institution. They possessed a fine See also:gorilla, keeping it alive for a longer See also:period than has been done in any other zoological collection. The beautiful Gardens at See also:Cologne, founded in 1860, contain many interesting features and in particular one of the finest aviaries in Europe. The Gardens of the Zoological Society of See also:Hamburg, founded in 1863, always contain a large and fine collection and display many ingenious devices for the housing of the animals. More recently C. See also:Hagenbeck has constructed a remarkable zoo-logical park at Stellingen, near Hamburg. The See also:chief feature of this is a magnificent See also:panorama, from the central point of which large collections of wild animals are visible without any intervening bars. The background consists of artificial rockwork, sup-ported on huge wooden scaffoldings. The See also:surface is formed of See also:cement moulded over See also:metal gimmel-See also:work, and arranged to form ledges and boulders, peaks and escarpments, and faced with coloured See also:sand and paint. It is made sufficiently strong to See also:bear the See also:weight of the animals, which are confined within their See also:bounds by undercut overhanging ridges, and by deep and wide ditches, masked by rockwork. The arrangement is extremely successful from the
spectacular point of view, and very suitable where most of the animals are See also:young and in process of training. The chief gardens in See also: Many of the zoological gardens are owned by private companies and derive their income entirely from gate-money, menagerie sales, rent of refreshment rooms, concert-halls and other See also:auxiliary public attractions, any profits being distributed amongst the members of the company. In other cases the gardens are assisted by public authorities, in return for which a certain number of free days are given. In other cases again, as in the case of London, the income is derived partly from the subscriptions of members, who in return receive privileges as to See also:admission, and partly from gate-money and menagerie receipts, all the income being expended on the maintenance of the institution and on scientific purposes. Nature of Collection.—This depends to a certain extent on the object of the institution. The species and varieties of mammals and birds that have a commercial value as farmyard stock or as pets, are for the most part easy to keep, are attractive to the public and may be a source of profit. Some of the smaller gardens in Europe, and perhaps a See also:majority of those in other parts of the world, pay much See also:attention to this See also:side, but the more important collections are as much as possible limited to natural species and wild animals. In theory every wild species has its See also:place in a zoological collection, but the actual choice is limited by so many See also:practical considerations that the better-known collections are remarkably alike. Birds and mammals take the first place; the leading collections devote a good See also:deal of attention to See also:reptiles and batrachians; fishes and aquatic invertebrata are most often to be found only when there are special aquaria, whilst non-aquatic invertebrates are seldom to be seen and at most consist of a few moths and butterflies, See also:spiders, scorpions and centipedes, molluscs and crustaceans. Within these limits, the first choice falls on large and well-known creatures which every one can recognize and desires to see. The large See also:Carnivora, lions, tigers, jaguars and leopards are the first favourites; then follow monkeys, then the large ungulates, elephants, rhinoceroses and hippopotamuses, camels and giraffes, deer and antelopes and equine animals, whilst birds are appreciated chiefly for plumage and See also:song. Animals vary very greatly in viability (see See also:LONGEVITY), and practical experience has shown that certain species bear captivity well, whilst others for reasons that appear to be psychological as well as See also:physical quickly succumb. Many animals of great zoological interest, from their nocturnal habits, or natural disposition, display themselves so seldom that their See also:possession is valueless from the point of view of the public, whilst closely allied species are not distinguished except by trained observers. If the object of a collection is simply to provide a See also:hardy and popular See also:exhibition, it is neither difficult nor very costly to get together and to maintain, But if the object be, as in the case of the greater zoological institutions, to get together as many species as possible, and to exhibit animals that have not been hitherto obtained, the possible range is enormous and the cost very great. See also:Sources of Animals.—A certain number of wild animals are See also:born in captivity and from time to time the possession of a successful stock enables one collection to See also:supply many others. At one time London was able to supply many See also:Continental gardens with giraffes, and Dublin and Antwerp have had great successes with lions, whilst antelopes, See also:sheep and See also:cattle, deer and equine animals are always to be found breeding in one collection or another. Suchstocks, however, usually fail in time, partly from too close inter-breeding, partly from the ordinary chances of mortality, and partly from the cumulative effects of See also:strange conditions. Fresh-caught wild animals have to be obtained to replenish the stock. In the majority of cases the conditions of success are that the wild creatures should be obtained as young as possible, kept in their native localities until they have become accustomed to See also:man and to such See also:food as they can be given at their ultimate destinations. The percentage of failure is greatest when fresh-caught adults are hurried to Europe or America. Individuals, moreover, vary greatly in their capacity to See also:respond successfully to new conditions of life, and it is less costly and more practical if the selection be made in their natural See also:home. The most promising sources of new animals for collections are young creatures which have been partly tamed by hunters, traders or natives, and which have been acquired by travellers. Many of these find their way to the great See also:shipping-ports, where there have grown up establishments that See also:trade in wild animals. Occasionally special expeditions are arranged to procure numbers of particular birds or mammals, but these are extremely costly and the mortality is usually high. Area and Site.—The areas occupied vary from about 300 acres (New York) to about 8 acres (See also:Bristol, England). In the larger gardens, however, the greater part of the space is engaged by a few extensive enclosures for herds of herbivorous animals, and where no See also:attempt is made to See also:associate the See also:function of a game reserve with that of a menagerie a smaller area is quite satisfactory. From the point of view of public convenience, too large a space is fatiguing and makes it more difficult to see the animals, whilst the expenses of maintenance. drainage and supervision increase out of proportion to the advantages. The older gardens have followed too closely the idea of small cages, designed to guard an See also:animal securely rather than to display it in a fitting environment, but if exercise, See also:light and air are provided, animals do better in a relatively small than in a relatively large enclosure. With regard to situation, the ideal would be to have the collection placed in the open country, far from centres of See also:population. But as menageries are supported for the public and in most cases by the public, such a site is impractical, and if the See also:soil, drainage and exposure are reasonably good, experience shows that a thriving collection may be maintained in the immediate vicinity of large towns. See also:Hygiene.—The first requisite is strict attention to cleanliness. A collection of animals must be compared with public institutions such as See also:barracks, or infirmaries. There must be an abundant supply of fresh air and of water, and a drainage system as See also:complete as possible. The soil of yards and the floors and walls of houses rapidly become contaminated, and the ideal See also:condition would be to have an impermeable flooring covering the whole area, and supplied with suitable layers of sand, sawdust, See also:peat-See also:moss or other absorbent substances which can be changed at frequent intervals. The buildings should be constructed on the most modern See also:hospital lines, with smooth walls and rounded corners, so that complete cleansing and disinfecting are possible. It has been shown abundantly, however, that even the best designed and best cared for buildings rapidly become contaminated, and it is probable that the costly and massive buildings of the more modern Gardens are erroneous in principle, and should be replaced by light and cheap structures not intended to last longer than a few years. In most temperate climates, artificial heating is necessary, at least occasionally, in many cases, but the tendency has been to be more sedulous of warmth than of See also:ventilation. See also:Cold-blooded animals, such as reptiles and batrachians, thrive best in an equable temperature, and, especially in the case of snakes, frequently can be induced to feed only when their temperature has been raised to a certain point. But the vast majority of birds and mammals not only can endure a large range of temperature, but thrive best when they are subjected to it. See also:Protection from violent See also:draught and shelter from extremes of See also:heat and cold are necessary, but in most cases the choice is best See also:left to the animals themselves, and the most successful arrangements consist of free exposure to the open air, with See also:access to warmth and shelter. All collections of living beings are subject to epidemics, and in an ideal menagerie special precautions should be taken. New arrivals should be quarantined, until it is certain that they are in a satisfactory condition of See also:health. Sickly animals should be at once isolated, and their cages and enclosures disinfected, whilst as a See also:matter of routine the enclosure in which any animal has died should be cleansed, and according to the results of post-mortem examination, which should be made in every case, appropriate See also:measures of disinfection employed. Feeding.—The food must be as varied as possible, and special attention should be given to the frequency and quantity of the supply. It is important that no more should be supplied at a time than is necessary, as most animals rapidly foul their food, and except in a few special cases, wild animals are peculiarly liable to the evil results of stale or putrid substances. Quantities can be learned from experience, and from watching individual cases; frequency varies within very wide limits, from reptiles which at most may feed once a week and fast for long periods, to the smaller insectivorous birds which require to be fed every two or three See also:hours, and which in the See also:winter dark of See also:northern latitudes must be lighted up once or twice in the See also:night to have the opportunity of feeding. Knowledge of the habits of animals and experience are the best guides to the nature of food to be supplied, but the keepers should be required to observe the droppings of their charges and to See also:judge from these of the extent to which any particular substances are being digested. The feeding of carnivores is on the whole the most easy; the chief pitfall being the extreme liability of all except the larger forms to fatal See also:digestive disturbances from food that is not quite fresh. The more powerful creatures in a state of nature are accustomed to kill a See also:prey too large to be devoured at once, and to return to it again and again, long after it has become putrid ; the smaller forms, for the most part, devour nothing but small creatures immediately after they have been captured and killed, and consequently in an absolutely fresh condition. The chief danger with herbivorous and frugivorous creatures is that their constitutions are not adapted to the richness of cultivated fruits and cereals, and, in captivity, they may suffer mechanically from the want of bulk in their food supply, or If they eat a quantity sufficient in bulk, it contains an excess of nutritive material. A See also:minor problem in menageries is injudicious feeding by visitors. Many authorities attempt to restrain visitors from feeding the animals in their See also:charge, but such a restriction, even if practicable, is not all gain, for animals in captivity are less inclined to mope, and are more intelligent and tamer, if they become accustomed to regard visitors as pleasant sources of tit-bits. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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