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MEDIEVAL MINUSCULE

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Originally appearing in Volume V20, Page 579 of the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica.
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MEDIEVAL MINUSCULE See also:HAND It has been stated above that in the Merovingian See also:MSS. of the 8th See also:century there was evident progress towards a settled minuscule See also:book-hand which only required a See also:master hand to See also:fix it in a purified and calligraphic See also:form. This was effected under See also:Charlemagne, in whose reign the revival of learning naturally led to a reform in See also:handwriting. An See also:ordinance of the See also:year 789 required the revision of See also:Church books; and a more correct See also:orthography and See also:style of See also:writing was the consequence. The See also:abbey of St See also:Martin of See also:Tours was one of the See also:principal centres from whence the See also:reformation of the book-hand spread. Here, from the year 796 to 804, See also:Alcuin of See also:York presided as See also:abbot; and it was specially under his direction that the Carolingian minuscule writing took the See also:simple and graceful form which was gradually adopted to the exclusion of- all other hands. In carrying out this reformation we may well assume that Alcuin brought to See also:bear the results of the training which he had received in his youth in the See also:English school of writing, which had attained to such proficiency, and that he was also beneficially influenced by the See also:fine examples of the Lombard school which he had seen in See also:Italy. In the new Carolingian minuscule all the uncouthness of the later Merovingian hand disappears, and the simpler forms of many of the letters found in the old See also:Roman See also:half-uncial and minuscule hands are adopted. The See also:character of Carolingian writing through the 9th and See also:early See also:part of the loth century is one of See also:general uniformity, with a contrast of See also:light and heavy strokes, the limbs of tall letters being clubbed or thickened at the See also:head by pressure on the See also:pen. As to characteristic letters (fig. 44) the a, following the old type, is, in the 9th century, still frequently open, in the form of u; the bows of g are open, the See also:letter somewhat resembling the See also:numeral 3; and there is little turning of the ends of letters, as m and n. ccapere&marturn cavil 'Cerra '=cWM..9 uod enirn occ.,.c eo ,r-'dorp(C-es . pa ecdsrttrn~ltsum a uocaret, rmorricrtcutrihrf7 1 FIG. 44.—Gospels, 9th century.

(accipere mariam coniugem See also:

tuam'quod enim ex See also:ea nascetur de spiritu sancto est. Pariet autem filium et uocabis nomen eius Iesum) In the See also:roth century the clubbing of the tall letters becomes less pronounced, and the writing generally assumes, so to say, a thinner See also:appearance. But a See also:great See also:change is noticeable in the writing of the 11th century. By this See also:time the Carolingian minuscule may be said to have put off its archaic form and to develop into the more See also:modern character of small letter. It takes a more finished and accurate and more upright form, the individual letters being See also:drawn with much exactness, and generally on a rather larger See also:scale than before. This style continues to improve, and is reduced to a still more exact form of calligraphy in the 12th century, which for See also:absolute beauty of writing is unsurpassed. In See also:England especially (fig. 45) the writing of this century is particularly fine. cuiof aiarumtthf Cad See also:rc See also:fur ai xeutculti tu'~+elk4cart»buf 11110 cmiif g c ttL - ;~; ~ dtt (—culos cum aruinulis suis adoleuit super altare uitulum cum pelle et carnibus et fimo cremans extra castra sicut preceperat See also:dominus) As, however, the demand for written See also:works increased, the fine See also:round-hand of the 12th century could not be maintained. See also:Economy of material became necessary, and a smaller hand with more frequent contractions was the result. The larger and XX. 19more distinct writing of the r i th and See also:lath centuries is now replaced by a more cramped though still distinct hand, in which the letters are more linked together by connecting strokes, and are more laterally compressed.

This style of writing is characteristic of the 13th century. But, while the book-hand of this See also:

period is a great advance upon that of a See also:hundred years earlier, there is no tendency to a cursive style. Every letter is clearly formed, and generally on the old shapes. The particular letters which show weakness are those made of a See also:succession of See also:vertical strokes, as m, it, u. The new method of connecting these strokes, by turning the ends and See also:running on, made the distinction of such letters difficult, as, for example, in such a word as minimi. The See also:ambiguity thus arising was partly obviated by the use of a small oblique stroke over the letter i, which, to See also:mark the See also:double letter, had been introduced as early as the 11th century. The dot on the letter came into See also:fashion in the 14th century. ,flagw000ttgpUctrattfattitnodfilmi Tebtitc1l34etofifctutbffertt chte8uetIn meiopxamta.dttditfatao ogzut=ttap> . *See also:cam tgoai n n afatctttafi 'mm1YS1ai:abfivatto6ttwtadt,, ",• (Eligite hodie giiod placet cui seruire potissimum debeatis. Utrum diis quibus seruierunt patres uestri in See also:mesopotamia, an diis amoreorum in See also:quorum terra habitatis. Ego autem et domus mea seruiemus domino. Respon- ditque populus et ait, Absit a nobis ut relinquamus dominum) In MSS. of the 14th century minuscule writing becomes slacker, and the consistency of formation of letters falters.

There is a tendency to write more cursively and without raising the pen, as may be seen in the form of the letter a, of which the characteristic shape at this time is a,, with both bows closed, in contrast with the earlier a. In this century, however, the hand still remains fairly stiff and upright. In the 15th century it becomes very angular and more and more cursive, but is at first kept within See also:

bounds. In the course of the century, however, it grows more slack and deformed, and the letters become continually more cursive and misshapen. An exception, however, to this disintegration of minuscule writing in the later centuries is to be observed in church books. In these the old set hand of the 12th and 13th centuries was imitated and continued to be the liturgical style of writing. It is impossible to describe within limited space, and without the aid of plentiful illustrations, all the varieties of handwriting which were See also:developed in the different countries of western See also:Europe, where the Carolingian minuscule was finally adopted to the exclusion of the earlier See also:national hands. In each See also:country, however, it acquired, in a greater or less degree, an individual national See also:stamp which can generally be recognized and which serves to distinguish MSS. written in different localities. A broad See also:line of distinction may be drawn between the writing of See also:northern and See also:southern Europe from the 12th to the 15th century. In the earlier part of this period the MSS. of England, northern See also:France and the See also:Netherlands are closely connected. Indeed, in the 12th and 13th centuries it is not always easy to decide as to which of the three countries a particular MS. may belong. As a See also:rule, perhaps, English MSS. are written with more sense of gracefulness; those of the Netherlands in darker See also:ink.

From the latter part of the 13th century, however, national character begins to assert itself more distinctly. In southern Europe the See also:

influence of the See also:Italian school of writing ismanifest in the MSS. of the See also:south of France in the 13th and 14th 'centuries, and also, though later, in those of See also:Spain. That elegant roundness of letter which the Italian See also:scribes seem to have inherited from the bold characters of the early papal See also:chancery, and more recently from Lombardic See also:models, was generally adopted in the book-hand of those districts. It is especially noticeable in calligraphic specimens, as in church books—the writing of See also:Spanish MSS. in this style being distinguished by the blackness of the ink. The medieval minuscule writing of See also:Germany stands apart. It never attained to the beauty of the hands of either the See also:north or II the south which have been just noticed; and from its ruggedness and slow development See also:German MSS. have the appearance of being older than they really are. The writing has also very commonly a certain slope in the letters which compares unfavourably with the uptight and elegant hands of other countries. In western Europe generally the minuscule hand thus nationalized ran its course down to the time of the invention of See also:printing, when the so-called See also:black letter, or set hand of the 15th century in Germany and other countries, furnished models for the types. But in Italy, with the revival of learning, a more refined See also:taste set in in the See also:production of MSS., and scribes went back to an earlier time in See also:search of a better See also:standard of writing. Hence, in the first See also:quarter of the 15th century, MSS. written on the lines of the Italian hand of the early 12th century begin to appear, and become continually more numerous. This revived hand was brought to perfection soon after the See also:middle of the century, just at the right moment to be adopted by the early Italian printers, and to be perpetuated by them in their types. English Cursive See also:Charter-Hands.—It must also not be forgotten that by the See also:side of the book-hand of the later middle ages there was the cursive hand of everyday use.

This is represented in abundance in the large See also:

mass of charters and legal or domestic documents which remains. Some See also:notice has already been taken of the development of the national cursive hands in the earliest times. From the 12th century downwards these hands settled into well defined and distinct styles See also:peculiar to different countries, and passed through systematic changes which can be recognized as characteristic of particular periods. But, while the cursive hand thus followed out its own course, it was still subject to the same See also:laws of change which governed the book-hand; and the letters of the two styles did not differ at any period in their organic formation. Confining our See also:attention to the charter-hand, or See also:court-hand, practised in England, a few specimens may be taken to show the principal changes which it developed. In the 12th century the See also:official hand which had been introduced after the See also:Norman See also:Conquest is characterized by exaggeration in the strokes above and below the line, a See also:legacy of the old Roman cursive, as already noted. There is also a tendency to form the tops of tall vertical strokes, as in b, h, 1, with a notch or cleft. The letters are well made and vigorous, though often rugged. (et ministris et See also:omnibus fidelibus suis See also:Francis et—Regine uxoris mee et Eustachii filii- mei dedi et concessi ecclesie Beate See also:Marie) As the century advances, the See also:long limbs are brought into better proportion; and early in the 13th century a very delicate fine-stroked hand comes into use, the cleaving of the tops being now a See also:regular See also:system, and the branches formed by the cleft falling in a See also:curve on either side. This style remains the writing of the reigns of See also:John and See also:Henry III. q.0 2 eCorill;z tkX if, is9 fob (uniuersis presentes litteras inspecturis salutem. Noueritis quod--See also:ford et Essexie et Constabularium Ang'.ie et Willelmum de Fortibus —ad iurandum in aninlam nostram in presencia nostra de See also:pace) Towards the latter part of the 13th century the letters grow rounder; there is generally more contrast of light and heavy strokes; and the cleft tops begin, as it were, to See also:shed the See also:branch on the See also:left.

ntm ptm m Mote ltzOI'BOCar (t See also:

moa¢ CtMttTrmra tt~rt~tt""sem lTgtwSlnt mo&uun pozZ &tie'al6nocaro¢ IS ~btt6 Cotu¢na*S t l tc'nanEt senuaytia 4 See also:pram f u teb (More cum pertinentiis in See also:mora que vocatur Inkelesmore continentem —se in longitudine per See also:medium more illius ab uno capite—Abbas et Conuentus aliquando tenuerunt et quam prefatus Co—) In the 14th century the changes thus introduced make further progress, and the round letters and single-branched vertical strokes become normal through the first half of the century. Then, however, the regular formation begins to give way and angularity sets in. Thus in the reign of See also:Richard II. we have a hand presenting a mixture of round and angular elements—the letters retain their breadth but lose their curves. Hence, by further decadence, results the angular hand of the 15th century, at first compact, but afterwards straggling and See also:ill-formed. %is fttez!; (e gS,5) yt:nse oe,4 6viS- e.nt.09 n4 9 16 ~~¢ gQAP++t.~ m1 97 (and fully to be endid, payinge yerely the seidsuccessours in hand halfe yere afore that is—next suyinge xxiij. s: iiij. d. by evene porciouns.) In concluding these remarks on the medieval cursive English writing, it is only necessary to remind the reader that the modern English cursive hand owes its origin to the general introduction into the See also:west of the fine round Italian cursive hand of the 16th century—one of the notable legacies bequeathed to us by the wonderful See also:age of the See also:Renaissance. See also:Greek See also:Palaeography: B. de See also:Montfaucon, Palaeographia graeca (1708); V. Gardthausen, Griechische Palaeographie (1879); W. See also:Wattenbach, Anleitung zur griechischen Palaeographie (1895); F. G. See also:Kenyon, The Palaeography of Greek Papyri (1899); N. Schow, Charta papyracea praece scripta musei Borgiani Velitris (1788); A. Peyron, Papyri graeci regii taut. See also:mus.

Aegypti (1826–1827); J. Forshall, Greek Papyri in the See also:

British Museum (1839) ; C. Leemans, Papyri Graeci Mus. Lugd. See also:Bat. (1843, 1885) ; C. See also:Babington, The Orations of Hyperides for See also:Lycophron and for Euxenippus (1853), and The Funeral Oration of Hyperides over Leosthenes (1858); W. See also:Brunet de Presle, " Notices et textes See also:des See also:papyrus grecs du Musee du Louvre," &c. [tom. xviii. of Notices et extraits des MSS. de la Bibl. See also:Imp.] (1865) ; J. Karabacek, Mittheilungen aus der Sammlung der Papyrus Erzherzcg Rainer (1886), and Fiihrer durch See also:die Ausstellung (1894) ; C. Wessely, Corpus papyrorum Raineri (1895, &c,) ; J.

P. See also:

Mahaffy, On the See also:Flinders-See also:Petrie Papyri (1891-1905); U. Wilcken, Tafein zur alteren griechischen Palaeographie (1891), Griechische Urkunden (1892, &c.), Griechische Ostraka (1895), and Archiv fiir Papyrusforschung (1900, &c.) ; F. G. Kenyon, Greek Papyri in the British Museum (1893–1906), Greek Classical Texts from Papyri in the British Museum (1891, 1892), See also:Aristotle on the Constitution of See also:Athens (1892), and The Poems of See also:Bacchylides (1898) ; E. Revillout, Le Playdoyer d'Hyperide contre Athenogene (1892) ; Grenfell and Mahaffy, The See also:Revenue Laws of See also:Ptolemy Philadelphus (1896); J. See also:Nicole, See also:Les Papyrus de Geneve (1896, &c.); Grenfell and See also:Hunt, The Oxyrhynchus Papyri (1898, &c.), Fayt2m Towns (1900), The See also:Amherst Papyri (1900, 1901), and The Tebtunis Papyri (1902, &c.); C. Wessely, Papyrorum scripturae graecae specimina (1900); U. von Wilamowitz-Mollendorff, Der See also:Timotheus-Papyrus (1903); H. Diels, Berliner Klassikertexte (1904, &c.); G. See also:Vitelli, Papiri fiorentini (1905, &c.); T. See also:Reinach, Papyrus grecs et demotiques (1905); See also:Sabas, Specim. palaeogr. codd. graec. et slay. (1863); W.

Wattenbach, Schrifttafeln zur Geschichte der griech. Schrift 1876), and Scripturae graecae specimina (1883); Wattenbach and von Velsen, Exempla codd. graec. lilt. minusc. scriptorum (1878); H. Omont, Facsim. des MSS. grecs See also:

dates de la bibl. nat. (1891), Facsim. des plus anciens MSS. de la bibl. nat. (1892), and Facsim. des MSS. grecs des xv. et xvi. sibcles (1887); A. Martin, Facsim. des MSS. grecs d'Espagne (1891); O. See also:Lehmann, Die tachygr. Abkurzungen der griech. Handschriften; T. W. See also:Allen, Notes on Abbreviations in Greek MSS. (1889).

Latin Palaeography: J. See also:

Mabillon, De re diplomatica (1709); Tassin and Toustain, Nouveau traite de diplomatique (1750-1765); T. Madox, Formulare anglicanum (1702) ; G. See also:Hickes, Linguarum septent. See also:thesaurus (1703-1705); F. S. See also:Maffei, Istoria diplomatica (1727) ; G. See also:Marini, I Papiri diplomatici (1805) ; G. See also:Bessel, Chronicon gotwicense (1732); A. Fumagalli, Delle Istituzioni diplomatiche (1802); U. F. See also:Kopp, Palaeographia critica (1817-1829); T. Sickel, Schrifttaf. aus dem Nachlasse von U.

F. von Kopp (187o); C. T. G. Schonemann, Versuch eines vollstiind. Systems der dlt. Diplomatik (1818); T. Sickel, Lehre von den Urkunden der ersten Karolinger (1867); J. Ficker, Beitrage zur Urkundenlehre (1877-1888); N. de See also:

Wailly, Elements de paleographie (1838) ; A. Chassant, Paleographie des charley, &c. (1885); L. See also:Delisle. Melanges de paleographie, &c.

(188o), Etudes paleographiques, &c. (1886), Memoire sur l'ecole calligraphique de Tours (1885); W. Wattenbach, Anleitung zur latein. Palaeographie (1886); A. Gloria, Compendio di paleografia, &c. (1870); C. See also:

Paoli,- Programma di paleografia See also:lat. e di diplomatica (1888-1900); H. Bresslau, Handbuch der Urkundenlehre (1889); M. Prou, See also:Manuel de paleographie (1891); A. See also:Giry, Manuel de diplomatique (1894); F. Leist, Urkundenlehre (1893); E. H.

Reusens, Elements de paleographic (1897-1899); W. See also:

Arndt, Schrifttafeln zur Erlernung der latein. Palaeographic (1887-1888); C. Wessely, Schrifttaf. zur dlteren latein. Palaeographie (1898) ; F. See also:Steffens, Latein. Palaeographie-Tafeln (1903, &C.) ; C. Zangemeister, Inscriptiones pompeianae [C.I.L. iv.] (1871), and Tabulae ceratae Pompeis repertae [C.I.L. iv.] (1898) ; Nicole and See also:Morel, Archives militaires du premier siecle (1900) ; J. F. Massmann, Libellus aurarius sine tabulae ceratae (1841); T. Mornmsen, Instrumenta dacica in tab. cerat. conscripta [C.I.L. iii.] (1873) ; A. See also:Champollion-See also:Figeac, See also:Charles et MSS. sur papyrus (184o); J.

A. Letronne, Dipl6mes et chartes de l'epoque merovingienne (1845-1866); J. Tardif, Facsim. de chartes et dipl8mes merovingiens et carlovingiens (1866) ; von See also:

Sybel and Sickel, Kaiserurkunden in Abbilaungen (1880-1891); J. Pflugk-Harttung, Specim. select. See also:chart. pontiff. roman. (1885-1887); Zangemeister and Wattenbach, Exempla codd. lat. lilt. majusc. scriptorum (1876-1879); E. See also:Chatelain, Uncialis scriptura codd. lat. (1901-1902); A. Champollion-Figeac, Paleographie des classiques latins (1839); E Chatelain, Paleographie des classiques latins (1884-1900); Musee des archives nationales (1872); Musee des archives departementales (1878); L. Delisle, See also:Album paleographique (1887) ; T. Sickel, Monumenta graphica ex archiv. et bibl. imp. austriaci collecta (1858-1882); W. Schum, Exempla codd. amplon. erfurtensium (1882); A. Chroust, Denkmdler der Schriftkunst des Mittelalters (1899, &e.); Monaci and Paoli, Archivio paleogr. italiano (1882-189o); M.

Monaci, Facsimili di antichi manoscritti 088'-1883); M. Morcaldi, Codex diplom. cavensis (1873, &c.) ; L. Tosti, Bibliotheca casinensis (1873-188o); Paleografia artistica di Montecassino (1876-1881) ; See also:

Ewald and Loewe, Exempla scripturae visigoticae (1883); C. See also:Rodriguez, Biblictheca universal de la polygraph) espanola (1738) ; A. See also:Merino, Escuela paleographica (178o) ; Munos y Rivero, Paleografia visigoda (1881), See also:Manual de paleografia diplomatica espanola (189o), and Chrestomathia palaeographica (189o); E. A. See also:Bond, Facsim. of See also:Ancient Charters in the British Museum (1873-1878); W. B. See also:Sanders, Facsim. of Anglo-Saxon MSS. (charters) (1878-1884), and Facsim. of National .MSS. of England (1865-'868); See also:Warner and See also:Ellis, Facsim. of Royal and other Charters in the British Museum (19o3); C. Innes, Facsim. of National MSS. of See also:Scotland (1867-1871); J. See also:Anderson, Selectus diplomatum et numismatum Scotiae thesaurus (1739) ; J.

T. See also:

Gilbert, Facsim. o f National MSS. of See also:Ireland (1874-1884); E. Chatelain, Introduction d la lecture des notes tironiennes (19ao); J. L. See also:Walther, See also:Lexicon Diplomaticum (1747); A. Chassant, Diclionnaire des abreviations latines et frangaises (1884) ; A. Cappelli, Dizionario di abreviature latine ed italiche (1889) ; L. Traube, Nomina sacra (1907) ; A. See also:Wright, Court-Hand restored (1879) ; C. T. Martin, The See also:Record Interpreter (1892). The application of photographic processes to the See also:reproduction of entire MSS. has received great impetus during the last few years, and will certainly be widely extended in the future.

Many of the most ancient biblical and other MSS. have been thus reproduced; the librarians of the university of See also:

Leiden are issuing a great See also:series comprising several of the See also:oldest classical MSS.; and under the auspices of the See also:pope and the Italian See also:government famous MSS. in the Vatican and other See also:libraries in Italy are being published by this method; not to mention the issue of various individual MSS. by other corporate bodies or private persons. (E. M.

End of Article: MEDIEVAL MINUSCULE

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