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ERITREA

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Originally appearing in Volume V09, Page 748 of the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica.
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ERITREA , an See also:

Italian See also:colony on the See also:African See also:coast of the Red See also:Sea. It extends from See also:Ras Kasar, a cape See also:Ito m. S. of See also:Suakin, in 18° 2' N., as far as Ras Dumeira (12° 42' N.), in the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, a coast-See also:line of about 65o m. The colony is bounded inland by the Anglo-See also:Egyptian See also:Sudan, See also:Abyssinia and See also:French See also:Somaliland. It consists of the coast lands lying between the capes named and of See also:part of the See also:northern portion of the Abyssinian See also:plateau. The See also:total See also:area is about 6o,000 sq. m. The See also:population is approximately 450,000, of which, exclusive of soldiers, not more than 3000 are whites. The See also:land frontier starting from Ras Kasar runs in a See also:south-See also:westerly direction until in about 14° 15' N., 36° 35' E. it reaches the See also:river Setit, some distance above the junction of that stream with the See also:Atbara. This, the farthest point inland, is 198 m. S.W. of See also:Massawa. The frontier now turns See also:east, following for a See also:short distance the course of the river Setit; thence it strikes See also:north-easterly to the Mareb, and from 38° E. follows that river and its tributaries the Belesa and Muna, until within 42 M. of the sea directly south of Annesley See also:Bay. At this point the frontier turns south and east, See also:crossing the Afar or Danakil See also:country at a distance of 6o kilometres (37.28 m.) from the coast-line.

About 12°20' N. the French possessions in Somaliland are reached. Here the frontier turns N.E. and so continues until the coast of the Red Sea is again reached at a point south of the See also:

town of Raheita. In the See also:southern part of the colony are small sultanates, such as those of Aussa and Raheita, which are under Italian See also:protection. The Dahlak See also:archipelago and other See also:groups of islands along the coast belong to Eritrea. See also:Physical Features.—The coast-line is of See also:coral formation and is, in the neighbourhood of Massawa, thickly studded with small islands. The See also:chief indentations are Annesley Bay, immediately south of Massawa, and See also:Assab Bay in the south. The colony consists of two widely differing regions. The northern See also:division is part of the Abyssinian See also:highlands. The southern division, part of the Afar or Danakil country, includes all the territory of the colony south of Annesley Bay. These two regions are connected by a narrow See also:strip of land behind Annesley Bay, where the Abyssinian hills approach See also:close to the sea. From this bay the coast-line trends S.E. so that at Tajura Bay the distance between the Abyssinian hills and the sea is over zoo m. The Afar country is part of the East African rift-valley, and in the southern parts of the valley its See also:surface is diversified by ranges of hills, frequently volcanic, and by lakes.

The plains, however, extend over large areas, they are generally arid and are often covered with See also:

mimosa trees which See also:form a See also:kind of See also:jungle called by the natives khala. The torrents which descend from the Abyssinian plateau usually fail to reach the sea. They are mostly bordered by dense vegetation; in the dry See also:season See also:water is found in pools in the river beds or can be obtained by digging. The See also:principal See also:rivers enter and are lost in one or other of two See also:salt plains or basins, that of Asali in the north and that of Aussa in the south. The Hawash flows through the Aussa country in a N.E. direction, but is lost in lakes Abbebad and Aussa (see ABYSSINIA). The Raguali and other rivers drain into the Asali See also:basin. This basin, like that of Aussa, is in places 20o ft. below sea-level. On the See also:west the Asali basin reaches to the Abyssinian See also:foot-hills; in its southern part is the small See also:lake Alelbad. The eastern edge of the basin is formed by a See also:ridge of See also:gypsum and on its margin grow palms. In parts the salt lies thick on the See also:plain, which then has the See also:appearance of a lake frozen over. South of Lake Alelbad is a See also:volcano called Artali or Erta-See also:ale (" the smoky "), and farther to the S.E., in about 13° 15' N., is the See also:peak of Afdera, which was in eruption in See also:June 1907. The hills, 1000 to 4000 ft. in height, which run more or less parallel to and a few See also:miles from the coast, include the volcano of Dubbi (reported active in 1861), some 30 M.

S. of the See also:

port of Edd (Eddi). In 14° 52' N., 39° 53' E. and near the northern end of the See also:zone of depression the volcano of Alid (2985 ft.) rises from the trough. Its chief See also:crest forms an elongated See also:ring and encloses a See also:crater over See also:half a mile in See also:diameter and with walls 350 ft. high. North and south of Alid extends a vast See also:lava See also:field. Dubbi and Alid are in Italian territory; the greater part of Afar belongs to Abyssinia. At Annesley Bay the narrow coast plain is succeeded by foothills separated by small valleys through which flow innumerable streams. From these hills the ascent to the plateau which constitutes northern Eritrea is very steep. This tableland, which has a See also:general See also:elevation of about 6500 ft., is fairly fertile despite a See also:desert region—Sheb—to the S.E. of Keren. It is characterized by See also:rich, well-watered valleys, verdant plains and See also:flat-topped hills with steep sides, See also:running in ranges or isolated. The highest hills in Eritrean territory rise to about Io,000 ft. The plateau is known by various names, the region directly west of Massawa being called Hamasen. To the west and north the plateau sinks in terraces to the plains of the Sudan, and eastward falls more abruptly to the Red Sea, the coast plain, known as the Samhar, consisting of sandy country covered with mimosa and, along the khors, with a somewhat richer vegetation.

The colony contains no navigable streams. For a short distance the Setit (known in its upper course as the Takazze), a tributary of the Atbara, forms the frontier, as does also in its upper course the Gash or Mareb (see ABYSSINIA). The Mareb, often dry in summer in the floods is a large and impassable river. Both the Setit and Mareb have a general westerly course across the Abyssinian plateau. The Baraka (otherwise Barka) and Anseba rise in the Hamasen plateau near See also:

Asmara within a short distance of each other. The Baraka flows west and then north ; the Anseba, which has a more easterly course, also flows northward and joins the Baraka a little N. of 17° N. A few miles below the confluence the Baraka leaves Italian territory. It is (as is the Anseba) an intermittent stream. After heavy See also:rain it discharges some of its water into the Red Sea north of Tokar. The whole of the See also:hill country north of Asmara belongs to the drainage area of the Baraka or Anseba. Of the numerous streams which, north of the Danakil country, run See also:direct from the hills to the Red Sea, the Hadas may be mentioned, as along the valley of that stream is one of the most frequented routes to the tableland. The Hadas, in See also:time of See also:flood, reaches the ocean near Adulis in Annesley Bay.

See also:

Climate.—The climate in different parts of the colony varies greatly. Three distinct See also:climatic zones are found:—(1) that of the coastlands, including altitudes up to 165o ft., (2) that of the escarpments and valleys, and (3) that of the high plateau and alpine summits. In the coast zone the See also:heat and humidity are excessive during most of the See also:year, June, See also:September and See also:October being the hottest months. Rains occur between See also:November and See also:April, during which time the temperature is See also:lower. In this zone malarial fevers prevail in See also:winter. The heat is greatest at Massawa, where the mean temperature averages 88° F., but where, in summer, the thermometer often rises to 12o° F. in the shade. In the second zone the climate is more temperate and there is considerable variation in temperature owing to nocturnal See also:radiation. This zone falls within the regime of the summer See also:monsoon rains, while those districts adjoining the coast zone enjoy also winter rains. See also:August is the most See also:rainy and May the hottest See also:month. On the high plateau, i.e. the third zone, the climate is generally moderately cool. Slight rain falls in the See also:spring and abundant monsoon rains from June to September. The heat is greatest in the dry season, November to April.

Above 8500 ft. the climate becomes sub-alpine in See also:

character. See also:Flora and See also:Fauna.—In the See also:low country the flora differs little from that of tropical See also:Africa generally, whilst on the plateau the vegetation is characteristic of the temperate zone. The See also:olive See also:tree grows on the high plateau and covers the flanks of the hills to within 3000 ft. of sea-level. The sycamore-fig tree grows to enormous proportions in parts of the plateau. Lower down See also:durra, See also:maize and bultuc grow in profusion. In the northern part of the colony, especially along the Khor Baraka, the dom See also:palm flourishes. The fauna includes, in the low country, the See also:lion, See also:panther, See also:elephant, See also:camel, and See also:antelope of numerous See also:species. On the plateau the fauna is that of Abyssinia (q.v.). Inhabitants.—The inhabitants of the plains and foothills are for the most part semi-See also:nomad shepherds, living on durra and See also:milk. In the north these See also:people are largely of Arab or Hamitic stock, such as the Beni-Amer, but include various See also:negro tribes. Afar and Somali form the population of the southern regions. The inhabitants of the plateau are Abyssinians.

The nomads are Mussulmans and are, as a See also:

rule, docile and pacific, though the Danakils are given to occasional raiding. The Abyssinians are more warlike, but they have settled down under Italian rule. Among the native See also:industries are See also:mat-See also:weaving, See also:cotton-weaving, See also:silver-working and rudimentary See also:iron and See also:leather working. (See See also:AFARS; SOMALILAND and ABYSSINIA.) Towns.—The principal places on the coast are Massawa (q.v.), pop. about io,000, the chief seaport of the colony, Assab, chief town of the Danakil region, to which converges the See also:trade from Abyssinia across the Aussa country, and See also:Zula (q.v.), identified with the See also:ancient Adulis. The chief town in the interior is Asmara (q.v.), the See also:capital of the colony and under the Abyssinians capital of the See also:province of Hamasen, and favourite headquarters of Ras Alula (see below and also ABYSSINIA). It is situated 7800 ft. above the sea, and has something of the aspect of a See also:European town. Keren, 50 m N.W. of Asmara, is the centre for a See also:district (See also:Bogos) fertilized by the upper course of the Anseba; See also:Agordat, on the river Baraka, on the road from Keren to See also:Kassala, is the centre of the Beni-Amer, Algheden and Sabderat tribes; Mogolo, on the lower Mareb, is the See also:rendezvous of the Baria and See also:Baza tribes. Towards Abyssinia the chief towns are Saganeiti (capital of the Okule-Kusai province), Godofelassi and Adi-Ugri, the two latter situated in the fertile plain of the Serae; Adiquala, on the edge of the Mareb See also:gorge; and Arrasa, the Centre of the districts constituting the province of Deki-Tesfa. See also:Agriculture and Trade.-The nomads of the plains possess large herds of See also:cattle and camels. The low country is almost entirely See also:pastoral and unsuited for the cultivation of crops. On the other See also:hand almost all European cereals flourish in the intermediate zone and on the high plateau, and the Abyssinian is a See also:good agriculturist and understands See also:irrigation. See also:Numbers of emigrants from See also:Italy possess farms on the plateau.

Experiments in the cultivation of See also:

coffee, See also:tobacco and cotton have given good results in the inter-mediate zone. Besides camels and oxen, See also:sheep and goats are numerous, and See also:meat, hides and See also:butter are articles of See also:local trade. Hides are the principal export (about £50,000 a year). See also:Wax, See also:gum, coffee and See also:ivory are also exported. See also:Pearl fishing is carried on at Massawa and the Dahlak islands. The See also:annual value of the See also:fisheries is about £40,000 (pearls £10,000, See also:mother of pearl £30,000). See also:Gold mines are worked near Asmara. Salt, obtained from the salt lakes in the Aussa and Danakil countries, is a valuable See also:article of See also:commerce. Cotton goods are the chief imports. There is a little trade with northern Abyssinia, but it is undeveloped. For the five years 1901–1905 the See also:average value of the See also:external trade was £456,000 per annum. The imports more than doubled the exports.

Communications.—A railway, 65 m. See also:

long, connects Massawa with Asmara. An See also:extension of the line is planned from Asmara to Sabderat and Kassala. The whole territory is crossed by camel and See also:mule paths between the sea and the high plateau, and between the various centres of population. Every valley that brings water to the Red Sea has a route leading to the high plateau. The See also:great See also:arteries, however, number three, which, starting from Massawa by way of Asmara, run, two to Abyssinia, and one to Kassala and See also:Khartum. They are all more or less practicable for carts, and are flanked by a good See also:telegraph line as long as they See also:lie in Italian territory. There are also two See also:caravan routes from Assab Bay, across the Danakil country to southern Abyssinia. The northern leads by a comparatively easy ascent to Yejju, the more southern follows the valley of the Hawash. A telegraph line 500 m. long connects Massawa with Adis Ababa via Asmara. Massawa is also telegraphically connected with the outside See also:world by a See also:cable to See also:Perim via Assab. There is See also:regular steamship communication with Italy. See also:Administration.—Eritrea is administered by a See also:civil See also:governor responsible to the See also:ministry of See also:foreign affairs at See also:Rome.

It is divided into six provinces, each governed by a regional See also:

commissioner. Some tracts of frontier territory are detached from the various 'regions and entrusted to See also:political residents, as, for instance, on the Sudan frontier and also on the Abyssinian boundary, where strict surveillance is necessary to repress raiding incursions from See also:Tigre, and where the chief intelligence See also:department is established. The six regions or principal provinces are:—Asmara, which includes Hamasen and other small districts; Keren, which comprises the high territories to the north of Asmara, i.e. the Bogos country; Massawa, extending over all the tribes between the high plateau and the sea from the See also:Hababs to the Danakil ; Assab, which extends from. Edd to Raheita; Okule-Kusai, the plateau country S.E. of Asmara; Serae, including Deki-Tesfa, the country S.W. of Asmara. The regional commissioners and the political residents See also:act either by means of the See also:village headmen (Shum or Chicca), by the chiefs of districts in the few localities where villages are still organized in districts, or by the headmen of tribes, and by the See also:councils of the elders wherever these remain. See also:Revenue is derived from customs duties, direct See also:taxation and See also:tribute paid by the nomad tribes. The local revenue, which for the See also:period 1897–1907 was about £100,000 a year, is supplemented by grants from Italy, the total cost of the admipistration being about £400,000 yearly. Nearly half the See also:expenditure is on the military force maintained. See also:Justice.—Civil justice for natives is administered, in the first instance, by the headmen of villages, provinces, tribes, or by councils of notables (Shumagalle) ; in See also:appeal, by the residents and regional tribunals, and, in the last instance, by the colonial See also:court of appeal. Europeans are entirely under Italian See also:jurisdiction. Penal justice is administered by Italian See also:judges only. An administrative tribunal settles, without appeal, questions of tribute, disputes concerning See also:family, village or tribal landmarks, as well as suits involving the colonial See also:government.

The civil See also:

laws for the natives are those established by local usage. Europeans are answerable to the Italian civil See also:code. Penal laws, are the same as in Italy, except where modified by local usages. Appeal to the Rome court of cassation is admitted against all penal and civil sentences. See also:Defence.—Defence is entrusted to a See also:corps of colonial troops, partly Italian and partly native; to a See also:militia (milizia See also:mobile) formed by natives who have already served in the colonial corps; and to the chitet or general See also:levy which, in time of See also:war, places all male able-bodied inhabitants under arms. The regional commissioners and political residents have at their disposal some hundreds of irregular paid soldiers under native chiefs. In war time these irregulars form part of the colonial corps, but in time of See also:peace serve as frontier See also:police. The colonial corps, about 5000 strong, garrisons the chief places of strategic importance, such as Asmara, Keren and Saganeiti. The irregular troops, on foot, or mounted on camels, number about woo men. The militia consists of 3500 men of all arms, and is intended in time of war to reinforce the various divisions of the colonial corps. The chitet yields between 3000 and 4000 men, to be employed on the lines of communication or in caravan service. All these troops are intended to See also:ward off a first attack, so as to allow time for the arrival of reinforcements from Italy.

The customs and political surveillance along the coast is entrusted, afloat, to the Massawa See also:

naval station, and, ashore, to a See also:coastguard See also:company 400 strong stationed at Meder, with detachments at Assab, Massawa, Raheita, Edd and Taclai. See also:History.—Traces of the ancient Eritrean See also:civilization are scarce. ' During the prosperous periods of ancient See also:Egypt, Egyptian squadrons asserted their rule over the west Red Sea coast, and under the See also:Ptolemies the port of See also:Golden See also:Berenice (Adulis?) was an Egyptian fortress, afterwards abandoned. During the See also:early years of the See also:Roman See also:empire, Eritrea formed part of an important See also:independent state—that of the Axumites (Assamites). At the end of the reign of See also:Nero, and perhaps even earlier, the See also:king of the Axumites ruled over the Red Sea coast from Suakin to the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, and traded constantly with Egypt. This potentate called himself " king of See also:kings," commanded an See also:army and a See also:fleet, coined See also:money, adopted See also:Greek as the See also:official See also:language, and lived on good terms with the Roman empire. The Axumites belonged originally to the Hamitic See also:race, but the See also:immigration of the Himyaritic tribes of southern See also:Arabia speedily imposed a new language and civilization. Therefore the ancient Abyssinian language, Geez, and its living dialects, Amharic and Tigrina, are Semitic, although modified by the See also:influence of the old Hamitic Agau or Agao. Adulis (Adovlis), slightly to the north of Zula (q.v.), was the chief Axumite port. From Adulis started the See also:main road, which led across the high plateau to the capital Axomis (Axum). Along the road are still to be seen vestiges of cities and inscribed monuments, such as the Himyaritic See also:inscriptions on the high plateau of Kohait, the six obelisks with a Saban inscription at Toconda, and an See also:obelisk with an inscription at Amba Sait. Other monuments exist elsewhere, as well as coins of the Axumite period with Greek and Ethiopian inscriptions.

After the rise of the Ethiopian empire the history of Eritrea is See also:

bound up with that of See also:Ethiopia, but not so entirely as to be completely fused. The documents of the Portuguese expedition of the 16th See also:century and other Ethiopian records show that all the country north of the Mareb enjoyed relative See also:autonomy under a See also:vassal of the Ethiopian See also:emperor. See also:Michael, counsellor of See also:Solomon, who was king of the country north of the Mareb, usurped the See also:throne of Solomon during the reign of the Emperor Atzie Jasu (1729-1753), and, after proclaiming himself ras of Tigre and " See also:protector of the empire," ceded the North Mareb country to an enemy of the rightful See also:dynasty. Hence a long struggle between the dispossessed family and the occupants of the North Mareb throne. The coast regions had meantime passed from the See also:control of the Abyssinians. In the 16th century the See also:Turks made themselves masters of Zula, Massawa, &c., and these places were never recovered by the Abyssinians. In 1865 Massawa and the neighbouring coast was acquired by Egypt, the See also:khedive See also:Ismail entertaining projects for connecting the port by railway with the See also:Nile. - The Egyptians took See also:advantage of civil war in Abyssinia to seize Keren and the Bogos country in 18721, an See also:action against which the See also:negus Johannes (King See also:John), newly come to the throne, did not at the 1 During the Second Empire unsuccessful efforts were made by See also:France to obtain a Red Sea port and a foothold in northern Abyssinia. (See SOMALILAND: French.)time protest.' In 1875 and 1876 the Egyptians, who sought to increase their conquests, were defeated by the Abyssinians at Gundet and See also:Gura. Walad Michael,the hereditary ruler of Bogos, fought as ally of King John at Gundet and of the Egyptians a.t Gura. For two years Walad Michael continued to harass the border, but in See also:December 1878 he submitted to King John, by whose orders he was (See also:Sept. 1879) imprisoned upon an amba, or flat-topped See also:mountain, whence he only succeeded in escaping in 1890.

In 1879 his territory was given by King John to Ras Alula, who retained it until, in August 1889, the Italians occupied Asmara (see ABYSSINIA: History). An Egyptian See also:

garrison remained at Keren in the Bogos country until 1884, when in consequence of the revolt of the See also:Mandi it was withdrawn, Bogos being occupied by Abyssinia on the 12th of September of that year. On the 5th of See also:February 1885 an Italian force, with the approval of Great See also:Britain, occupied Massawa, the Egyptian garrison returning to Egypt. This occupation led to See also:wars with Abyssinia and finally to the See also:establishment of the colony in its See also:present limits. The history of the Italian-Abyssinian relations is fully told in the articles ITALY and ABYSSINIA (history sections). It was not, however, at Massawa that Italy first obtained a foothold in eastern Africa. The completion of the See also:Suez See also:Canal led Italy as well as Great Britain and France to seek territorial rights on the Red Sea coasts. The See also:purchase of Assab and the neighbouring region for £1880, from the See also:sultan Berehan of Raheita for use as a coaling station by the Italian Rubattino Steamship Company, in See also:March 1870, formed the See also:nucleus of Italy's colonial possessions. This purchase was protested against by Egypt, See also:Turkey and Great Britain; the last named See also:power being willing to recognize an Italian commercial See also:settlement, but nothing more. (The See also:Indian government viewed the establishment of the Italians on the new See also:highway to the East with a good See also:deal of See also:ill-See also:humour.) Eventually, the See also:British opposition being overcome and that of Egypt and Turkey disregarded, Assab, by a See also:decree of the 5th of See also:July 1882, was declared an Italian colony. Between 1883 and .1888 various See also:treaties were concluded with the sultan of Aussa ceding the Danakil coast to Italy and recognizing an Italian See also:protectorate over the whole of his country—through which passes the trade route from Assab Bay to See also:Shoa. On the 1st of See also:January 1890 the various Italian possessions on the coast of the Red Sea were See also:united by royal decree into one province under the See also:title of the Colony of Eritrea—so named after the Erythraeum See also:Mare of the See also:Romans.

At first the government of the colony was purely military, but after the defeat of the Italians by the Abyssinians at See also:

Adowa, the administration was placed upon a civil basis (1898–1900). The frontiers were further defined by a French-Italian See also:convention (24th of January 1900) fixing the frontier between French Somaliland and the Italian possessions at Raheita, and also by various agreements with Great Britain and Abyssinia. A tripartite agreement between Italy, Abyssinia and Great Britain, dated the 15th of May 1902, placed the territory of the Kanama tribe, on the north See also:bank of the Setit, within Eritrea. A convention of the 16th of May 1908 settled the Abyssinian-Eritrean frontier in the Afar country, the boundary being fixed at 6o kilometres from the coast. The task of reconstructing the administration on a civil basis and of developing the commerce of the colony was entrusted to Signor F. See also:Martini, who was governor for nine years (1898–1906) . Under civil rule the colony made steady though somewhat slow progress. uddn, chaps. i.-xii. (See also:Berlin, 1904) ; See also:Luigi Chiala, La Spedizione di Massana(See also:Turin,1888) ; Abyssinian See also:Green Books published at intervals in 1895 and 1896, covering the period from 187o to the end of the Italo-Abyssinian War; See also:Vico Mantegazza, La Guerra in Africa (See also:Florence, 1896) ; General Baratieri, Memorie d'Africa (Rome, 1898) ; C. de la Jonquiere, See also:Les Italiens en Erythree (See also:Paris, 1897) ; G. F. H. Berke-ley, The See also:Campaign of Adowa (See also:London, 1902).

For See also:

orography and See also:geology see an article by P. Verri in See also:Boll. See also:Soc. geog. italiana, 1909, and for climate an article in Rivista coloniale (1906), by A. Tancredi. A. See also:Allori compiled a See also:Piccolo Dizionario eritreo, italianoarabo-amarico (See also:Milan, 1895). For Afar consult W. See also:Munzinger, " A See also:Journey through the Afar Country " in Journ. Royal Geog. Soc. for 1869; V. Bottego, Nella Terra dei Danakil," in Boll. Soc.

Geog. Italiana, 1892; See also:

Count C. See also:Rossini, " Al Ragali " in L'Espl. See also:Comm. of Milan, 1903–1904; and articles by G. Dainelli and O. Marinelli in the Riv. Geog. Italiana of Florence for 1906-1908, dealing with the volcanic regions. See also:Bibliographies will be found in G. Fumagalli's Bibliografia Etiopica (Milan, 1893) and in the Riv. Geog. Italiana for 1907.

End of Article: ERITREA

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