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CHINESE POTTERY AND
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See also:CHINESE POTTERY AND PORCELAIN1 In See also:China, as in every other See also:country where pottery-making has been practised for centuries, we find a natural progression from See also:primitive pottery akin in shape, decoration and manufacture to the pottery of other primitive races the See also:world over. We find too the See also:early use of bricks, tiles, &c., as in See also:Egypt and See also:Assyria; and then the usual See also:succession of domestic utensils, funeral vases, and vessels for religious ceremonials. There is nothing to show that the See also:potter's See also:wheel made its See also:appearance in China earlier than elsewhere, and the Chinese potters have used the See also:simple methods of See also:carving and " pressing " from moulds which preceded the use of the potter's wheel, even more than other nations. In books of the Chow See also:dynasty (1122-249 B.C.) the difference between the processes of " throwing " and of " pressing " from moulds is clearly described,2 and it is instructive to See also:note that many early as well as See also:late forms of Chinese pottery are remarkably like their See also:works in See also:bronze. In the same way there is no definite date to which we can refer the introduction of glazed pottery. The earliest specimens of glazed See also:ware known are referred by the Chinese to the times of the Han dynasty 1 See examples in See also:colour, Plates VII. and VIII. 2 S. W. Bushell, Chinese See also:Art (See also:Victoria and See also:Albert Museum See also:Hand-books, ii. 5-6).(206 B.C.—A.D. 220), a date much later than that of the earliest glazed wares of Egypt and Assyria. Remembering the inter-course between China and the See also:West, at times historically remote, it is not impossible that the See also:idea of coating a See also:vessel of See also:clay with a glaze was carried into China from See also:Chaldaea or Assyria. In any See also:case the Chinese See also:developed the potter's art on their own lines, for we have ample See also:evidence that from very early times they fired their pottery to a much higher temperature than was See also:common in the west of See also:Asia, and so discovered types of glaze and of pottery that remained for centuries a See also:mystery elsewhere. The glazed wares of the Han dynasty already mentioned are quite unlike any contemporary pottery produced in See also:Syria, Egypt or See also:Europe, for the See also:body of the ware is so hard that it can scarcely be scratched by a See also:knife, and the dark-greenish glaze has become iridescent by See also:age as though it contained See also:oxide of See also:lead. The easily-fired friable wares of Assyria, Egypt and See also:Greece seem to have had no attraction for the Chinese, and the glazes on their hard-fired wares were naturally different from those already described. The Chinese appear to have been the first potters in the world to discover that at a sufficiently high temperature pottery can be glazed with powdered felspathic See also:rock mixed with See also:lime. At first these glazes were used on any See also:ordinary refractory clay which might See also:burn red, drab or See also:buff; but in this technique See also:lay the germ of Chinese See also:porcelain, the most advanced See also:form of pottery the world has yet seen. It is necessary to consider the pottery that preceded porcelain, for not only was it the See also:matrix out of which porcelain See also:grew, but in certain districts of China, where the necessary materials for porcelain are not found, similar wares have been manufactured without inter-See also:mission to the See also:present See also:time. Naturally, in progress of time, the technique of this pottery has been greatly improved, both by developments in the preparation and mixture of the See also:clays, the shaping and modelling of the wares, the introduction of coloured enamels or glazes, and the like. Dr Bushell, who is our See also:great authority on the Chinese arts and handicrafts, rightly seizes on two outstanding types of Chinese pottery other than porcelain which have exercised considerable See also:influence on the doings of See also:European potters.
1. Yi-Hsing-Yao.2—This is the pottery, generally of unglazed fawn, red or See also: 1368–1643) and later.' It was imported into Europe by the Portuguese, who applied to it the name boccaro, formerly given only to a scented terra-See also:cotta brought from See also:Mexico and See also:Peru., This pottery and Chinese porcelain were wide asunder as the poles in nature as well as origin, but the potters of See also:northern Europe regarded every kind of pottery coming from the Far See also:East as a See also:species of porcelain, and the manufacture of red teapots, mugs, See also:bowls, cups, &c., in See also:imitation of the Yi-Hsing-Yao was widespread during the late 17th and early 18th centuries under the name of red porcelain. See also:Dwight, Elers and Bottger are notable names in this connexion.
2. Kuang-Yao.—The name given by the Chinese to the pottery made in the province of Kwang-tung. There are several centres of manufacture in this extensive province, but for the purposes of this See also:article it is sufficient to See also:state that the best-known of these wares are dense, hard-fired and glazed stonewares, which are always dark-coloured See also:grey, red, brown or blackish. They are usually glazed with thick, variegated or opalescent glazes, grey, See also:blue, See also:green, yellow or red, but flecked, veined and streaked with other tints. The wares are so like the productions of the Sung dynasty (A.D. 960–1279) that See also:modern pieces are often confounded with the more See also:precious productions of that See also:epoch. One of the first lessons to be learnt by the student of Chinese pottery is that, with great reverence for their own antiquities, the Chinese of every See also:period have endeavoured to reproduce the famous wares of their ancestors, and often with such skill as to deceive the most See also:expert. Even when the manufacture of porcelain was at its highest in See also: 5 See also:Solon, The See also:Noble Buccaros (Stoke-upon-See also:Trent, 1896).
Porcelain.—By this word we distinguish broadly all those pieces of pottery in which the body of the ware is vitrified and translucent, and also, broadly speaking, in which the material is See also: 960-1259), and the See also:majority of these are perhaps more fitly described as stoneware than as porcelain. Under the Sung dynasty China enjoyed great material prosperity, and all the arts were cultivated assiduously. Pottery of distinguished merit was made in many districts, and much of it has been classified as porcelain because the body is whitish and vitrified, though it is much inferior in finish and in translucence to the perfect white porcelain of later times. It is necessary to realize, too, that we have no See also:record of any pottery with painted decoration until perhaps the very end of the 13th See also:century; such See also:ornament as was used consists entirely of designs incised or modelled in the clay. But the See also:principal decoration is to be found in the varied coloured glazes with which the wares, whether stoneware or porcelain, were covered. The glaze is never clear and white as at later times; it is generally uneven, imperfectly fused and presents all the marks of an imperfect technique. The nearest approach to white is found in an opalescent grey which shades off to greenish and bluish tints. The glazes of this period which are most highly valued arethe celaden, a See also:family of cool bluish or yellowish greens of indescribable See also:depth and softness. Besides the celadon which are the most See also:uniform in tints of the Sung glazes, we get many shades of palish See also:lavender, brownish yellow and brownish See also:black, but these are all subtly or boldly mottled, splashed, clouded or veined with See also:strange tones of red, blue, See also:purple, opalescent grey and black. The most famous of these now very rare Sung wares were the stonewares of Chun-chow, remarkable for their See also:rich and varied glazes, the black variegated glazed wares of Fu-kien province, " See also:hare's See also:fur cups " and " See also:partridge cups " of collectors, and the four principal wares that may be called porcelain, viz.—the Ju-Yao, made at Ju-chow in Honan; the Kuan-Yao (Kuan=" See also:official " or " imperial "), made first at Pien-chow and afterwards at Hang-chow; the Ko-Yao, made at Liu-t'ien; and the Ting-Yao, made at Tung-chow in Chih-li. This was the period when Chinese porcelain became known beyond its native country, for the first mention of porcelain outside China appears in the writings of a See also:Mahommedan traveller, Sulaiman, who visited China in the 9th century and wrote: " They have in China a very fine clay with which they makevases which are as transparent as See also:glass; water is seen through them ";1 and its first appearance in the west is always given as A.D. 1171 (or 1188), when See also:Saladin sent a present of See also:forty pieces to the See also:sultan of See also:Damascus. From this time onwards an export See also:trade was developed, particularly in the celadon wares of See also:Lung-chuan, a See also:city in the See also:south-west of the province of Chehkiang. This famous ware, the " green porcelain " of the Chinese, probably made as an imitation of See also:jade, exists mostly in the form of thick heavy dishes, bowls and jars, bearing incised or fluted patterns, and coated with a remarkable thick green glaze of indescribable softness of See also:tone. Though the body of the ware is white when it is broken through, any parts not covered by the glaze have a reddish-brown colour due to the unrefined See also:paste, and when the ware was reproduced in later times this reddish-brown tint had to be imitated artificially. The ware was highly prized both in China and Japan, in the islands of the East Indies, and in all Mahommedan countries. In See also:Persia it was largely used, and specimens of it have been recovered during the last century from the east See also:coast of See also:Africa and as far west as See also:Morocco. " See also:Archbishop See also:Warham's See also:cup " at New See also:College, See also:Oxford, which is the first specimen of Chinese porcelain to reach See also:England that we can now produce, is a celadon bowl with a See also:silver-gilt See also:mount of the time of See also: The earliest painted Chinese porcelains, which are referred to the beginning of the Ming period, though some of them may be older, speak strongly of ideas imported from the west of Asia. The pieces are massive both in form and substance, and the ornament, consisting of figures mounted or on See also:foot, animals, bands of See also:diaper or foliage, or See also:pendant necklaces, is strongly silhouetted by a raised outline recalling the decorative methods of the See also:Assyrian See also:brickwork. The technical methods also recall the methods of western Asia, for the ware was fired before it was glazed, and then yellow, See also:turquoise, green or purple glazes, similar in nature to the glazes of Egypt, Syria and Persia, and quite unlike the Chinese Sung glazes, were filled into the outlined spaces and melted at a See also:lower temperature. The Grandidier 1 M. Reinand, Relation See also:des voyages faits See also:par See also:les Arabes et les Persans dons l'Inde et a la Chine dans le IX' siecle (See also:Paris, 1845). 2 The See also:suggestion has been made that the celadon wares found in Western countries were made by Moslem potters and not by the Chinese, but this theory is not generally accepted. On this point consult Karabacek, " Zur muslimischen Keramik " in Osterreichische Monatsschrift fur den Orient, vol. x., 1884; A. B. See also:Meyer, " Uber See also:die Herkunft gewisser Seladon-Porzellane " under " Uber die Marta banis," ibid. vol. xi., 1885; Hirth, Ancient Porcelain (1888), and Bushell, See also:Oriental Ceramic Art (1899). collection in the Louvre, the See also:Franks collection at the See also:British Museum, the Victoria and Albert Museum, as well as all the great private collections of Chinese porcelain, contain samples of this primitive and archaic-looking ware. The great stream of porcelain decoration was, however, to take an entirely different direction. The See also:Persian pottery with its brilliant painted decorations in blue, green and purple on a pure white ground, exercised its natural See also:fascination over men as keen in colour-sense as the Chinese potters. With the concentration of the industry at King-te-chen, and the rapid improvement in technical skill and knowledge that followed, the production of a fine porcelain with a transparent white glaze was perfected. Of all the See also:colours used by the Persian pot-painter the only one that would endure the fierce fire of the Chinese porcelain was the blue obtained by using the ores of cobalt, and with this colour, and a wonderful See also:blood-red obtained from See also:copper, the See also:foundation of Chinese painted porcelain was laid. It would be idle to try and See also:fix any specific date for this important development, which took more than a See also:generation to perfect, but it is reasonably accurate to say that the blue and white painted porcelains were unknown in the 13th,century and were fully developed at the beginning of the 15th century. Chinese collectors See also:prize most highly the blue and white of the reign of Suen-te (A.D. 1426—1435), of See also:Cheng-hwa (1465—1487), and next of Yung-lo (1403—1424). It is interesting to note that the colour used during these reigns is spoken of as " Mahommedan" blue, so that it was evidently brought from some country to the west. This r 5th-century blue and white porcelain is admittedly the finest of its class, and though the Chinese never abandon an old method and have continued to make blue and white porcelain, often of very See also:good quality, the later wares, fine as they may be, rarely equal these. The under-glaze red, an invention of the Chinese, has already been mentioned, and this most difficult of all ceramic colours was largely used during the same period. At first it appears as a general ground colour for the outside of bowls and cups, then vessels were made in See also:special forms (See also:persimmon See also:fruit, &c.) to display its qualities, finally it was used either alone or in con-junction with blue in painted designs under a white glaze of exceptional quality. A Chinese connoisseur of the 15th century describes one of his pieces as being decorated with " three red fishes on a white ground, pure as driven See also:snow; the See also:fish boldly outlined and red as fresh blood, all with colour so brilliant as to dazzle the See also:eye." Other characteristic wares which made their appearance in Ming times are the marvellous " eggshell " porcelains, called by the Chinese " bodyless " from their extreme thinness. As early as the reign of Yung-lo (1403—1424) these delicate wares were in high repute, and their manufacture has been continued ever since with varying skill and success. In spite of their extreme thinness the specimens have designs of dragons in the midst of clouds and waves, See also:inscriptions, &c., engraved in the paste before firing. In the fine white specimens the See also:design is so delicate that it is barely visible until the vessel is filled with liquid or held to the See also:light. Others were covered with a coloured glaze which serves to accentuate the design, and the most prized of these are the yellow pieces made during the reign of Hung-Chi (1488—1505) and Cheng-te (1506—1521). Another wonderful variety of Chinese porcelains which made its appearance at this period is the well-known perforated ware, commonly spoken of, from the shape of the perforations, as " See also:grain of See also:rice " porcelain, though the Chinese have exhibited consummate skill in the manufacture of perforated pieces of all kinds. Sometimes the perforations are See also:left clear, but in the rice-grain See also:pattern the incisions are generally filled up with the melted glaze so that they become like so many windows in the walls of the piece. We have already seen that the Persian potters used a similar method of decoration in the 16th century, but we are unable to say at present whether the See also:device originated in China orin Persia. Its usein both countries is only an additional See also:proof of the intercourse between eastern and western Asia. It is only toward the end of the 16th century that we findthe first examples of porcelain decorated with colours fired over the glaze. It seems probable that the practice grew out of the use of enamels on See also:metal, which had spread from See also:Byzantium to China, and which the Chinese developed with remarkable skill. It is important to remember that the very nature of the glaze of Chinese porcelain, necessitating such a high temperature to melt it, severely restricted the under-glaze See also:palette to cobalt-blue and the glorious but uncertain copper-red. To obtain the rich polychromatic schemes of the potters of the West some other means must be found, and so the device was adopted of taking a finished piece of blue and white and decorating it further by very fusible colours painted over the fired glaze and then attached to it by refiring at a lower temperature equal only to that used by the enameller on metals. At first the on-glaze or See also:enamel colours were applied as thin washes, as in the Ming (See also:San ts' ai) three-colour decoration of green, purple, and yellow. Then we get the Ming (Wan-li Wu Is' ai) five-colour See also:scheme, in which the same three colours are combined with an over-glaze red and all are painted over a See also:skeleton pattern in under-glaze blue. This development, as its name implies, only took place in the reign. of Wan-li (1573—1620). At this time King-te-chen must have produced a very large quantity of porcelain. The requirements of the See also:court were enormous, for in 1583 one of the supervising censors, remonstrating with the See also:emperor, declared that one See also:year's demands comprised over 96,000 pieces; and Dr Bushell writes: " The See also:colossal production of the reign of Wan-li is shown by the abundance of porcelain of this time to be found in See also:Pekin at the present See also:day, where a See also:garden of any pretensions must have a large collection of bowls or cisterns for See also:goldfish, and See also:street-See also:hawkers may be seen with sweetmeats upheld by dishes a yard in See also:diameter, or ladling See also:syrup out of large bowls, and there is hardly a See also:butcher's See also:shop without a cracked Wan-li See also:jar See also:standing on the See also:counter to hold scraps of See also:meat." Such profuse orders may be accountable for the fact that the wares of this reign are inferior both in material and workmanship to the wares of the preceding and also of later periods, but the influence of the growing export trade doubtless told in the same direction. For several centuries the native Chinese porcelain had been exported to all the neighbouring countries, and through Persia and See also:Cairo to the West. No See also:long time elapsed before the Chinese adopted forms, colours and decorations for these export wares, not in accordance with Chinese usage, but presumably more suited to the tastes of the foreigner. Hence the Persian and Syrian See also:style of the painted blue decoration of the 15th and 16th century wares found in other See also:Asiatic countries. Now, for the first time, there came a See also:direct European demand, and cargoes of ware were brought to Europe by the Portuguese and afterwards by the Dutch, which were increasingly decorated in fashions See also:foreign to Chinese See also:taste. The production of these export wares slowly modified the taste of the Chinese themselves and paved the way for the new styles of the late 17th and early 18th centuries. The See also:political troubles which marked the downfall of the Ming dynasty definitely separated the first great period of Chinese porcelain from its second and culminating period. The works at King-te-chen were destroyed more than once in the 17th century, but in spite of these difficulties the potters must have remained, for the reigns of K'ang-hi (1662—1722), Yung-cheng (1722—1735), and K'ien-lung (1736—1795) covered a century and a See also:half, within which the high-water See also:mark of See also:artistic production was reached and passed. It is only possible here to See also:sketch in broadest outline the course of this See also:Renaissance, which has formed the subject of many learned works. It is characteristic of the Chinese mind that during this period, when a spirit of eager experiment was abroad, the productions of their ancient kilns should receive no less See also:attention than the new methods of decoration in on-glaze colours, while at the same time many of the discoveries of the later Ming days were carried on to perfection. The first remarkable productions of the reign of K'ang-hi, the famous green and blood-red See also:Lang-yao glazes, were made in the See also:attempt to produce glazes like those
of old times. With the more carefully prepared body and glaze the results are strikingly different and, as we think, See also:superior, for it is difficult to believe that any example of the " sacrificial red of the reign of Suen-te can have been as glorious as the red Lang-Yao, the See also:crown of all that See also:group of glazes known from their general colour as sang de bceuf (see example, See also:Plate VII.). In the same way the traditional blue and white of the Ming period was continued with the greatest skill, and, if the blue pigment be not so pure as that of the 15th century, the decorative effect of the blue and white of the reign of K'ang-hi (see example, Plate VIII.) has never been equalled in Europe. The subjects of the blue and white pieces of this period are very varied, including religious, ceremonial, See also:battle and See also:hunting subjects, homely scenes such as ladies and See also:children amusing themselves in gardens, or animals, birds, dragons and other fabulous monsters disporting themselves in clouds or waves. The so-called " See also:hawthorn See also:ginger jars " form a class by themselves in the opinion of modern collectors (see the See also:plum-blossom jar, Plate VIII.), a specimen being sold at the See also: As in old times, for the production of some of these' glazes a departure was made from the general Chinese methods. The vessels were first fired to the " See also:biscuit " state, and then soft alkaline glazes coloured with copper or See also:manganese were fired over them at a much lower temperature so as to give the " See also:peacock-blue," " See also:kingfisher-green " and " See also:aubergine-purple " glazes. Many varieties of single-coloured glazes were made by covering a white glazed piece with on-glaze colour, and in this way new shades of coloured glaze, such as the See also:coral-reds (Plate VII.),wereobtained. The various brown or bronze-coloured grounds, so well known in the so-called " Batavian " porcelain, were obtained by coating the piece with a slip of some ochreous clay under the usual white glaze. Even these methods do not exhaust the fertile resources of the potters of this period, for they carried on concurrently the style of decoration in overglaze colours, first in the schemes characterized by the predominance of a vivid green enamel (famille verte; see Plate VIII.), and finally, in the 18th century, in the schemes in which See also:rose, See also:pink and purple colours predominate (famille rose; see Plate VIII.). It is probable that these latter colours, which owe their tint to gold, were introduced into China from Europe, but the Chinese employed them whole-heartedly, until in fact they largely ousted all the earlier types of colour decoration.
During the reign of Yung-Cheng (1723–1735) the diverse
i It is of See also:interest to note that the " See also:Delft " of See also: In the earlier wares the treatment is bold and vigorous as becomes true pottery colour, and the softening of the colour by the melting glaze adds to the artistic See also:charm of the result. Painting on a fired glaze is like painting on glass—fine lines, delicate See also:drawing, and skilful stippling or See also:cross-hatching are just as natural in this method as they are impossible or uncertain in the other. See also:Naturalism of rendering takes the place of conventional decorative treatment, and elaborate minuteness of finish supplants the broad freedom of direct brushwork. During the 18th century the same See also:leaven was at See also:work on the porcelains of China and of Europe, the East influenced the West, and the West in its turn See also:bore down the East. If Chinese porcelain remained superior to its European counterfeits, it was because the Chinaman was still the better potter and had a longer tradition of decorative art behind him. There is little to be said of Chinese porcelain during the 19th century. The European demand was practically killed by the growth of porcelain works at See also:home, and the imperial patronage, so great a See also:factor in the production of artistic wares, was fitful and uncertain. Tao-Kwang (1821–1850) gave some attention to porcelain, and the pieces' made for him and marked " Shente-yang " are valued by collectors. The so-called See also:Peking bowls of his reign (made of course at King-te-chen) are also of repute. But the political difficulties of China left little leisure for the cultivation of the arts; the successive See also:wars with See also:France and England served only to scatter the splendid wares of the past (see the Musee Chinoise at See also:Fontainebleau), and during the reign of the next emperor Hien-feng (1851–1861) the T'aipings over-ran the province of Kiang-si and destroyed King-te-chen and its factories. Since then the See also:town has been rebuilt and is once again producing Chinese porcelain. Tempted doubtless by the high prices now paid in Europe and See also:America for examples of the Chinese porcelains of the 18th century, modern copies of the single-coloured, sang de bceuf, flambe and other glazes are being made, while the highly prized hawthorn " jars and black-ground vases are receiving the same undesirable attention. Materials and Manufacture of Chinese Porcelain.—For many centuries after its first appearance Chinese porcelain differed from every other known species of pottery both in its material and its manufacture. While the pottery of all other countries was generally made of coloured clays mixed only with See also:sand or broken " shards " and fired at a comparatively See also:low temperature, Chinese porcelain was compounded from the purest white clays, sand and fusible rock; it was glazed with fusible rock, and it was so hard fired that the entire See also:mass became vitrified and translucent. The germ of the manufacture lay in the See also:discovery of large masses of primary clay (See also:kaolin) mixed with finely-ground felspathic rock (petuntse), both of which were carefully washed, levigated and purified. The body of Chinese porcelain varied from time to time within wide limits, but, broadly speaking, it always consists of purified kaolin, petuntse and See also:quartz (sand), mixed in various proportions, sometimes with additional ingredients, according to the quality of ware desired. For the glaze the purest and cleanest portions of the felspathic rock (petuntse), were selected and mixed with lime—all being ground to fine powder. The lime causes the glaze to melt at a lower temperature than would be necessary for petuntse alone. The lime also gives the Chinese glazes their luscious softness of aspect and the faint greenish or bluish tone, while it enabled them to receive the later decorations in piled-up enamels, impossible on the harder European porcelain glazes of the 18th century. The finely-prepared glaze was applied to the clay vessels, before they had been fired, either by dipping, by painting, or by insufflation; and then glaze and body were fired together at a very high temperature. For certain glazes—turquoise, purple, &c.—which were not of the felspathic type, the vessels were first fired to the " biscuit " state, and the glazes were then applied and fired at a much lower temperature—the usual practice of the potters of other countries. When painted wares in blue and red were first introduced, the necessary See also:pigments were painted on the pieces before firing, the glaze was applied over them, and then all was finished at one and the same firing. With the later enamel colours the piece was first fired as above described, and the fusible colours were then painted on the glaze, which was of course like glass. A second firing at a lower temperature fused these on-glaze colours to the ware. For See also:information on Chinese materials and methods the reader is referred to the letters of Pere d'Entrecolles in the collection of Jesuit letters known asLettresedifaantesetcurieuses. The English reader will find reliable See also:translations of the essential parts in Bushell's Oriental Ceramic Art, See also:Dillon's Porcelain, and See also:Burton's See also:History of Porcelain. Later information will be found in See also:Brongniart's Traite des arts ceramiques; especially in the 3rd edition, 18?7; and in an article by G. See also:Vogt, Bulletin de la Societe d'encouragement pour l'industrie nationale, See also:April 1900, pp. 530-612. Collections.—The Franks collection in the British Museum; the Victoria and Albert Museum, where the famous collection of Mr See also:George Salting has for years been displayed, together with the collections belonging to the museum. Paris, the Grandidier collection at the Louvre; the collection at the Musee See also:Guimet; the Sevres Museum. Fontainebleau, the Musee Chinoise. Dresden, the Porcelain Collection—the See also:oldest in Europe. See also:Boston, the Museum of Fine Arts. New See also:York, the See also:Metropolitan Museum containing the See also:Garland and other collections. See also:Washington, the Hippisley collection; as well as magnificent private collections, at the See also:head of which is that of the late W. T. Walters of See also:Baltimore. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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