|
See also:LEO XIII . (Gioacchino Pecci) (1810-1903), See also:pope from 1878 to 1903, reckoned the 257th successor of St See also:- PETER
- PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
- PETER (PEDRO)
- PETER, EPISTLES OF
- PETER, ST
Peter, was See also:born at Carpineto on the 2nd of See also:March 181o. His See also:family was Sienese in origin, and his See also:father, See also:Colonel Domenico Pecci, had served in the See also:army of See also:Napoleon. His See also:mother, See also:Anna Prosperi, is said to have been a descendant of See also:Rienzi, and was a member of the third See also:- ORDER
- ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
- ORDER, HOLY
order of St See also:Francis. He and his See also:elder See also:brother Giuseppe (known as See also:Cardinal Pecci) received their earliest See also:education from the See also:Jesuits at See also:Viterbo, and completed their education in See also:Rome. In the See also:jubilee See also:year 1825 he was selected by his See also:fellow-students at the Collegium Romanum to See also:head a deputation to Pope Leo XII., whose memory he subsequently cherished and whose name he assumed in 1878. Weak See also:health, consequent on over-study, prevented him from obtaining the highest academical honours, but he graduated as See also:doctor in See also:theology at the See also:age of twenty-two, and then entered the Accademia dei See also:Nobili ecclesiastici, a See also:college in which See also:clergy of aristocratic See also:birth are trained for the See also:diplomatic service of the See also:Roman See also:- CHURCH
- CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
- CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
- CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
- CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
- CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)
Church. Two years later See also:- GREGORY
- GREGORY (Gregorius)
- GREGORY (Grigorii) GRIGORIEVICH ORLOV, COUNT (1734-1783)
- GREGORY, EDWARD JOHN (1850-19o9)
- GREGORY, OLINTHUS GILBERT (1774—1841)
- GREGORY, ST (c. 213-C. 270)
- GREGORY, ST, OF NAZIANZUS (329–389)
- GREGORY, ST, OF NYSSA (c.331—c. 396)
- GREGORY, ST, OF TOURS (538-594)
Gregory XVI. appointed him a domestic See also:prelate, and bestowed on him, by way of See also:apprenticeship, various See also:minor administrative offices. He was ordained See also:priest on the 31st of See also:December 1837, and a few See also:weeks later was made apostolic delegate of the small papal territory of See also:Benevento, where he had to See also:deal with brigands and smugglers, who enjoyed the See also:protection of some of the See also:noble families of the See also:district. His success here led to his See also:appointment in 1841 as delegate of See also:Perugia, which was at that See also:- TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
- TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
- TIME, STANDARD
time a centre of See also:anti-papal See also:secret See also:societies. This See also:post he held for eighteen months only, but in that brief See also:period he obtained a reputation as a social and municipal reformer. In 1843 he was sent as See also:nuncio to See also:Brussels, being first consecrated a See also:bishop (19th See also:February), with the See also:title of See also:archbishop of See also:Damietta. During his three years' See also:residence at the Belgian See also:capital he found ample See also:- SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)
scope for his gifts as a diplomatist in the education controversy then raging, and as mediator between the Jesuits and the See also:Catholic university of See also:Louvain. He gained the esteem of See also:Leopold I., and was presented to See also:Queen See also:Victoria of See also:England and the See also:Prince See also:Consort. He also made the acquaintance of many Englishmen, Archbishop See also:Whately among them. In See also:January 1846, at the See also:request of the magistrates and See also:people of Perugia, he was appointed bishop of that See also:city with the See also:rank of archbishop; but before returning to See also:Italy he spent February in See also:London, and March and See also:April in See also:Paris. On his arrival in Rome he would, at the request of See also:- KING
- KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
- KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
- KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
- KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
- KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
- KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
- KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
- KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
- KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
- KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
- KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)
King Leopold, have been created cardinal but for the See also:death of Gregory XVI. Seven years later, 19th December 1853, he received the red See also:hat from See also:Pius IX. Mean-while, and throughout his See also:long episcopate of See also:thirty-two years, he foreshadowed the zeal and the enlightened policy later to be displayed in the prolonged period of his pontificate, See also:building and restoring many churches, striving to elevate the intellectual as well as the spiritual See also:tone of his clergy, and showing in his See also:pastoral letters an unusual regard for learning and for social reform. His position in Italy was similar to that of Bishop See also:Dupanloup in See also:France; and, as but a moderate supporter of the policy enunciated in the See also:Syllabus, he was not altogether persona grata to Pius IX. But he protested energetically against the loss of the pope's temporal See also:power in 187o, against the See also:confiscation of the See also:property of the religious orders, and against the See also:law of See also:civil See also:marriage established by the See also:Italian See also:government, and he refused to welcome See also:Victor See also:Emmanuel in his See also:diocese. Nevertheless, he remained in the See also:comparative obscurity of his episcopal see until the death of Cardinal See also:Antonelli; but in 1877, when the important papal See also:- OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")
office of camerlengo became vacant,
Pius IX. appointed to it Cardinal Pecci, who thus returned to reside in Rome, with the prospect of having shortly responsible functions to perform during the vacancy of the See also:Holy See, though the camerlengo was traditionally regarded as disqualified by his office from succeeding to the papal See also:throne.
When Pius IX. died (7th February 1878) Cardinal Pecci was elected pope at the subsequent See also:conclave with comparative unanimity, obtaining at the third See also:scrutiny (loth February) See also:forty-four out of sixty-one votes, or more than the requisite two-thirds See also:majority. The conclave was remarkably See also:free from See also:political influences, the See also:attention of See also:Europe being at the time engrossed by the presence of a See also:Russian army at the See also:gates of See also:Constantinople. It was said that the long pontificate of Pius IX. led some of the cardinals to See also:vote for Pecci, since his age (within a few days of sixty-eight) and health warranted the expectation that his reign would be comparatively brief; but he had for years been known as one of the few " papable " cardinals; and although his long seclusion at Perugia had caused his name to be little known outside Italy, there was a See also:general belief that the conclave had selected a See also:man who was a prudent statesman as well as a devout churchman; and See also:Newman (whom he created a cardinal in the year following) is reported to have said, "In the successor of Pius I recognize a See also:depth of thought, a tenderness of See also:heart, a winning simplicity, and a power answering to the name of Leo, which prevent me from lamenting that Pius is no longer here."
The second See also:day after his See also:election Pope Leo XIII. crossed the See also:Tiber incognito to his former residence in the Falconieri See also:Palace to collect his papers, returning at once to the Vatican, where he continued to regard himself as " imprisoned " so long as the Italian government occupied the city of Rome. He was crowned in the Sistine See also:Chapel 3rd March 1878, and at once began a reform of the papal See also:household on austere and economic lines which found little favour with the entourage of the former pope. To fill posts near his own See also:person he summoned certain of the Perugian clergy who had been trained under his own See also:eye, and from the first he was less accessible than his predecessor had been, either in public or private See also:audience. Externally uneventful as his See also:life henceforth necessarily was, it was marked chiefly by the reception of distinguished personages and of numerous pilgrimages, often on a large See also:scale, from all parts of the See also:world, and by the issue of encyclical letters. The stricter .theological training of the Roman Catholic clergy throughout the world on the lines laid down by St See also:- THOMAS
- THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
- THOMAS (d. 110o)
- THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
- THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
- THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
- THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
- THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
- THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
- THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
- THOMAS, ST
- THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
- THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)
Thomas See also:Aquinas was his first care, and to this end he founded in Rome and endowed an See also:academy bearing the See also:great schoolman's name, further devoting about 12,000 to the publication of a new and splendid edition of his See also:works, the See also:idea being that on this basis the later teaching of Catholic theologians and many of the speculations of See also:modern thinkers could best be harmonized and brought into See also:line. The study of Church See also:history was next encouraged, and in See also:August 1883 the pope addressed a See also:letter to Cardinals de Luca, Pitra and See also:Hergenrother, in which he made the remarkable concession that the Vatican archives and library might be placed at the disposal of persons qualified to compile manuals of history. His belief was that the Church would not suffer by the publication of documents. A man of See also:literary See also:taste and culture, See also:familiar with the See also:classics, a facile writer of Latin versesl as well as of Ciceronian See also:prose, he was as anxious that the Roman clergy should unite human See also:science and literature with their theological studies as that the laity should be educated in the principles of See also:religion; and to this end he established in Rome a See also:kind of voluntary school See also:board, with members both See also:lay and clerical; and the rivalry of the See also:schools' thus founded ultimately obliged the See also:state to include religious teaching in its curriculum. The numerous encyclicals by which the pontificate of Leo XIII. will always be distinguished were prepared and written by himself, but were submitted to the customary re-See also:vision. The encyclical Aeterni Patris (4th August 1879) was
1 Leonis XIII. See also:Pont. Maximi carmina, ed. Brunelli (See also:Udine, 1883); Leonis XIII. carmina, inscriptiones, numismata, ed. J. See also:Bach (See also:Cologne, 1903).
written in the See also:defence of the See also:philosophy of St Thomas Aquinas. In later ones, working on the principle that the See also:Christian Church should superintend and See also:direct every See also:form of civil life, he dealt with the Christian constitution of states (Immortale Dei, 1st See also:November 1885), with human See also:liberty (Libertas, 20th See also:June 1888), and with the See also:condition of the working classes (Rerum novarum, 15th May 1891). This last was slightly tinged with modern See also:socialism; it was described as " the social Magna Carta of Catholicism," and it won for Leo the name of " the working-man's pope." Translated into the See also:chief modern See also:languages, many thousands of copies were circulated among the working classes in Catholic countries. Other encyclicals, such as those on Christian marriage (Arcanum divinaesapientiae, loth February 188o), on the See also:Rosary (Supremi apostolatus officii, 1st See also:September 1883, and Superiore See also:anno, 5th September 1898), and on Free-See also:masonry (See also:Humanism genus, loth April 1884), dealt with subjects on which his predecessor had been accustomed to pronounce allocutions, and were on similar lines. It was the knowledge that in all points of religious faith and practice Leo XIII. stood precisely where Pius IX. had stood that served to render in-effectual others of his encyclicals, in which he dealt earnestly and effectively with matters in which orthodox Protestants had a sympathetic See also:interest with him and might otherwise have See also:- LENT (0. Eng. lenclen, " spring," M. Eng. lenten, lente, lent; cf. Dut. lente, Ger. Lenz, " spring," 0. H. Ger. lenzin, lengizin, lenzo, probably from the same root as " long " and referring to " the lengthening days ")
lent an See also:ear to his counsels. Such were the letters on the study of Holy Scripture (18th November 1893); and on the See also:reunion of Christendom (loth June 1894). He showed See also:special anxiety for the return of England to the Roman Catholic See also:fold; and addressed a letter ad Anglos, dated 14th April 1895. This he followed up by an encyclical on.the unity of the Church (Satis cognitum, 29th June 1896) ; and the question of the validity of See also:Anglican ordinations from the Roman Catholic point of view having been raised in Rome by See also:Viscount See also:Halifax, with whom the See also:abbe See also:- LOUIS
- LOUIS (804–876)
- LOUIS (893–911)
- LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
- LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian
Louis See also:Duchesne and one or two other See also:French priests were in sympathy, a See also:commission was appointed to consider the subject, and on the r5th of September 1896 a condemnation of the Anglican form as theologically insufficient was issued, and was directed to be taken as final.
The See also:establishment of a diocesan See also:hierarchy in See also:Scotland had been decided upon before the death of Pius IX., but the actual announcement of it was made by Leo XIII.
On the 25th of See also:July 1898 he addressed to the Scottish Catholic bishops a letter, in the course of which he said that " many of the Scottish people who do not agree with us in faith sincerely love the name of See also:Christ and strive to ascertain His See also:doctrine and to imitate His most holy example." The Irish and See also:American bishops he summoned to Rome to confer with him on the subjects of See also:Home See also:Rule and of " Americanism " respectively. In See also:India he established a diocesan hierarchy, with seven archbishoprics, the archbishop of See also:Goa taking See also:precedence with the rank of See also:patriarch.
With the government of Italy his general policy was to be as conciliatory as was consistent with his See also:oath as pope never to surrender the " patrimony of St Peter "; but a moderate attitude was rendered difficult by partisans on either See also:side in the See also:press, each of whom claimed to represent his views. In 1879, addressing a See also:congress of Catholic journalists in Rome, he exhorted them to uphold the See also:necessity of the temporal power, and to proclaim to the world that the affairs of Italy would never prosper until it was restored; in 1887 he found it necessary to deprecate the violence with which this doctrine was advocated in certain See also:journals. A similar counsel of moderation was given to the See also:Canadian press in connexion with the See also:Manitoba school question in December 1897. The less conciliatory attitude towards the Italian government was resumed in an encyclical addressed to the Italian clergy (5th August 1898), in which he insisted on the See also:duty of Italian Catholics to abstain from political life while the papacy remained in its " painful, See also:precarious and intolerable position." And in January 1902,. See also:reversing the policy which had its inception in the encyclical, Rerum novarum, of 1891, and had further been See also:developed ten years later in a letter to the Italian bishops entitled See also:Graves de communi, the " Sacred See also:Congregation of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs"issued instructions concerning " Christian See also:Democracy in Italy," directing that the popular Christian See also:movement, which embraced in its See also:programme a number of social reforms, such as factory See also:laws for See also:children, old-age See also:pensions, a minimum wage in agricultural See also:industries, an eight-See also:hours' day, the revival of See also:trade See also:gilds, and the encouragement of See also:Sunday See also:rest, should divert its attention from all such things as savoured of novelty and devote its energies to the restoration of the temporal power. The reactionary policy thus indicated gave the impression that a similar aim underlay the appointment about the same date of a commission to inquire into Biblical studies; and in other minor matters Leo XIII. disappointed those who had looked to him for certain reforms in the devotional See also:system of the Church. , A revision of the See also:breviary, which would have involved the omission of some of the less credible legends, came to nothing, while the recitation of the office in See also:honour of the See also:Santa Casa at See also:Loreto was imposed on all the clergy. The See also:worship of See also:Mary, largely developed during the reign of Pius IX., received further stimulus from Leo; nor did he do anything during his pontificate to correct the superstitions connected with popular beliefs concerning See also:relics and indulgences.
His policy towards all governments outside Italy was to support them wherever they represented social order; and it was with difficulty that he persuaded French Catholics to be See also:united in defence of the See also:republic. The See also:German' Kulturkampf was ended by his exertions. In 1885 he successfully arbitrated between See also:Germany and See also:Spain in a dispute concerning the See also:Caroline Islands: In See also:Ireland he condemned the " See also:Plan of See also:Campaign " in 1888, but he conciliated the Nationalists by appointing Dr See also:Walsh archbishop of See also:Dublin. His See also:hope that his support of the See also:British government in Ireland would be followed by the establishment of formal diplomatic relations between the See also:court of St See also:- JAMES
- JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
- JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
- JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
- JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
- JAMES, EPISTLE OF
- JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
- JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
- JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
- JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
- JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
- JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)
James's and the Vatican was disappointed. But the jubilee of Queen Victoria in 1887 and the pope's priestly jubilee a few months later were the occasion of friendly intercourse between Rome and See also:Windsor, Mgr. See also:Ruffo Scilla coming to London as special papal See also:envoy, and the See also:duke of See also:Norfolk being received at the Vatican as the See also:bearer of the congratulations of the queen of England. Similar courtesies were exchanged during the jubilee of 1897, and again in March 1902, when See also:Edward VII. sent the See also:earl of See also:Denbigh to Rome to congratulate Leo XIII. on reaching his ninety-third year and the twenty-fifth year of his pontificate. The visit of Edward VII. to Leo XIII. in April 1903 was a further See also:- PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)
proof of the friendliness between the See also:English court and the Vatican.
The See also:elevation of Newman to the college of Cardinals in 1879 was regarded with approval throughout the English-speaking world, both on Newman's See also:account and also as See also:evidence that Leo XIII. had a wider See also:horizon than his predecessor; and his similar recognition of two of the most distinguished inopportunist " members of the Vatican See also:council, Haynald, archbishop of See also:Kalocsa, and Prince See also:Furstenberg, archbishop of See also:Olmutz, was even more noteworthy. Dupanloup would doubtless have received the same honour had he not died shortly after Leo's See also:accession. See also:Dollinger the pope attempted to reconcile, but failed. He laboured much to bring about the reunion of the See also:Oriental Churches with the see of Rome, establishing Catholic educational centres in See also:Athens and in Constantinople with that end in view. He used his See also:influence with the See also:emperor of See also:Russia, as also with the emperors of See also:China and See also:Japan and with the shah of See also:Persia, to secure the free practice of their religion for Roman Catholics within their respective dominions. Among the canonizations and beatifications of his pontificate that of See also:Sir Thomas More, author of See also:Utopia, is memorable. His encyclical issued at See also:Easter 1902, and described by himself as a kind of will, was mainly a reiteration of earlier condemnations of the See also:Reformation, and of modern philosophical systems, which for their See also:atheism and See also:materialism he makes responsible for all existing moral and political disorders. Society, he earnestly pleaded, can only find salvation by a return to See also:Christianity and tp the fold of the Roman Catholic Church.
See also:Grave and serious in manner, speaking slowly, but with
energetic gestures, See also:simple and abstemious in his life—his daily See also:bill of fare being reckoned as hardly costing a couple of francs—Leo XIII. distributed large sums in charity, and at his own charges placed costly astronomical See also:instruments in the Vatican See also:observatory, providing also See also:accommodation and endowment for a See also:staff of officials. He always showed the greatest interest in science and in literature, and he would have taken a position as a statesman of the first rank had he held office in any See also:secular government. He may be reckoned the most illustrious pope since See also:Benedict XIV., and under him the papacy acquired a See also:prestige unknown since the See also:middle ages. On the 3rd of March 1903 he celebrated his jubilee in St Peter's with more than usual pomp and splendour; he died on the loth of July following. His successor was Pius X.
See Scelta di atti episcopali del cardinale G. Pecci . . . (Rome, 1879); Leonis XIII. Pont. Max. acta (17 vols., Rome, 1881–1898); Sanctissimi Do mini N. Leonis XIII. allocutiones, epistolae, &c. (See also:Bruges and See also:Lille, 1887, &c.) ; the encyclicals (S¢nztliche Rundschre,See also:ben) with a German See also:translation (6 vols., See also:Freiburg, 1878–1904) ; Discorsi del Sommo Pontefrce Leone XIII. 1878–1882 (Rome, 1882). There are lives of Leo XIII. by B. O'Reilly (new ed., See also:Chicago, 1903), H. See also:des Houx (See also:pseudonym of See also:Durand Morimbeau) (Paris, 1900), by W. See also:Meynell (1887), by J. McCarthy (1896), by See also:Boyer d'See also:Agen, (Jeunesse de See also:Leon XIII. (1896); La Prilature, 1900), by M. Spahn (See also:Munich, 1905), by L. K. See also:Goetz (See also:Gotha, 1899), &c. A life of Leo XIII. (4 vols.) was undertaken by F. See also:Marion See also:Crawford, See also:Count Edoardo See also:Soderini and See also:Professor Giuseppe See also:Clementi. (A. W. Hu.; M.
End of Article: LEO XIII
Additional information and Comments
There are no comments yet for this article.
Please link directly to this article:
Highlight the code below, right click, and select "copy." Then paste it into your website, email, or other HTML.
Site content, images, and layout Copyright © 2006 - Net Industries, worldwide.
Do not copy, download, transfer, or otherwise replicate the site content in whole or in part.
Links to articles and home page are always encouraged.
|
del.icio.us it!