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ARMENIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

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Originally appearing in Volume V02, Page 575 of the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica.
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ARMENIAN See also:

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE . The Armenian language belongs to the See also:group called Indo-See also:European, of which the Iranic and Indic See also:tongues formed one See also:branch, and See also:Greek, Albanian, See also:Italian, See also:Celtic, Germanic L8°g`' and Baltic-See also:Slavonic dialects the other See also:great branch. Unlike most of these, Armenian lost its genders See also:long before the See also:year A.D. 400, when the existing literature begins. See also:Modern See also:Persian similarly has lost gender; and in both cases the liberation must have been due to See also:attrition of other tongues which had a different See also:system of gender or none at all. So the Armenians were ever in contact on the See also:north with the See also:Iberians of the See also:Caucasus who had none, and with the Semitic races on the See also:south and See also:east which had other ways of forming genders than the Indo-European tongues. From the See also:original Armenian stock can be readily distinguished a See also:mass of Old and See also:Middle Persian See also:loan-words. These are so numerous that for a See also:time Armenian was classed as an Iranian See also:tongue. For more than a thousand years, say until A.D. 640, See also:Armenia was an See also:appanage of the See also:realm of the Persians and Parthians. Until A.D. 428 the Armenian See also:throne was occupied by a younger branch of the Arsacid See also:dynasty that ruled in See also:Persia until the See also:advent of the Sassanids (c.

A.D. 226), and the See also:

internal polity and See also:court See also:administration of Armenia were modelled on the Persian or See also:Parthian. Accordingly over 200 proper and See also:personal names in Armenia were Old Persian, as well as 700 names of things. If we See also:count in the derivative forms of these words we get at least 2000 Old Persian words. Often the same Persian word was borrowed twice over in an earlier and later See also:form at an See also:interval of centuries, just as in See also:English we inherit a word See also:direct or have taken it from Latin, and have also assimilated from See also:French a later form of the same. The Persian See also:influence in Armenian was already strong as See also:early as 400 B.C., when See also:Xenophon used a Persian interpreter to converse. In some of the Armenian villages they answered him in Persian.. The Persian loan-words already See also:present in Armenian as early as A.D. 400 See also:mirror the earlier See also:political and social See also:life of Armenia. Thus many of their See also:kings and nobles had Persian names; Persian also were most words used in connexion with horses and the See also:chase; with See also:war and See also:army, with See also:dress, See also:trade and coinage, See also:calendar, weights and See also:measures, with court and political institutions, with See also:music, See also:medicine, school, See also:education, literature and the arts. Many everyday words were of the same origin, e.g. the words for See also:village, See also:desert, See also:building and build, need, See also:rich or liberal, See also:arm (of See also:body), See also:rod or goad, See also:face, opposite, wicked, unfriendly, discontented, difficult, daughter, eulogy, a youth, wary, enjoy, unhappy, volition, voluntary, unwilling, See also:blind, cautious, See also:blood-See also:kin, See also:coquet with, slumber, humble, mad, See also:grace or favour, memory or See also:attention, grandfather, old woman, prepared, See also:duty, necessary, end, endless, See also:superior, confident, See also:mistake, warmth, See also:heat, See also:glory. The language of their old See also:religion was mainly Persian, but in the 4th See also:century they derived numerous ecclesiological words from the Syrians, from whom by way of See also:Edessa and See also:Nisibis See also:Christianity penetrated eastern Armenia.

The language of the See also:

garden and the names of See also:plants were also Persian. They had their own numerals, but the words for one thousand and for ten thousand are Persian. Yet more indicative of the extent of the Persian influence is the See also:adoption of the adjectival ending -akan and -zan, added to purely Armenian words; also of the preposition See also:ham, answering to See also:con in " conjoin," " conspire," added to purely Armenian words, as in hambarnam, I take away, and hamboir, a See also:kiss, a word which, See also:strange to say, the Iberians in turn borrowed from the Armenians. From Persia also the Armenians took their names for surrounding races, e.g. Tatshik or See also:Tajik, first for Arab and then for Turk, Ariq for Persians, Kapkoh for Caucasus, Hrazdan, Vaspuragan, &c. The Armenians See also:call themselves See also:Hay, plural Hayq; their See also:country Hayasdan. The Iberians they called Virq or Wirq (where q marks the plural), the Medes Marq, the Cappadocians Gamirq (Cimmerians), the Greeks nines or See also:Ionians; See also:Ararat they call Masis, the See also:Euphrates the Aradsan, the See also:Tigris Teglath, See also:Erzerum is Karin, Edessa Urhha, Nisibis Mdsbin, See also:Ctesiphon Tizbon, &c. When the Persian and other loan-words are removed, a stock remains of native words and forms governed by other phonetic See also:laws than those which govern the See also:Aryan, i.e. See also:Indian and Iranic, branch of the Indo-European tongues. Armenian appears to be a See also:half-way See also:dialect between the Aryan branch and Slavo-lettic. Much, however, in Armenian See also:philology remains unexplained. For example the plural of nouns, pronouns and the first and second persons plural of verbs are all formed by adding a q or k, which has no parallel in any Indo-Germanic tongue.

The genitive plural again is formed by adding a tz or c, and the same consonant characterizes the composite See also:

aorist and the conjunctive. In all three cases it is unexplained. In the verbs the termination m for the first singular at once explains itself, and the n of the third plural is the Indo-Germanic nti. But not so the second See also:person singular ending in s, e.g. berem, I See also:bear, beres, See also:thou bearest. This has a superficial likeness to the I.-G. esi in bheresi, " thou bearest." Yet we should expect the s between vowels to vanish, and give us in Armenian See also:berg Perhaps, therefore, an old variant of esi, similar to the Greek ioat, lies behind the Armenian es, thou See also:art, and the es in beres, thou bearest. In any See also:case it is clear that many of the See also:oldest forms which Armenian shared with other Indo-Germanic dialects were lost and replaced by forms of which the origin is obscure. Perhaps a closer study of -Mingrelian and Georgian will explain some of these peculiarities, for these and their cognate tongues must have had a wider range in the 7th and 8th centuries B.C. than they had later when clear See also:history begins. The attempts made by S. See also:Bugge to assimilate Old Armenian to See also:Etruscan, and by P. See also:Jensen to explain from it the Hittite See also:inscriptions, appear to be fanciful. There is a large Semitic influence traceable in Armenian due to their early contact with the See also:Syriac-speaking peoples to the south and east of them, and later to the Arab See also:conquest. Much remains to be done in the way of See also:collecting Armenian dialects, for which task there are written materials as far back as the 12th century over and above the See also:work to be done by an intelligent traveller armed with a See also:phonograph.

Two See also:

main dialects of Armenian are distinguishable to-See also:day, that of Ararat and See also:Tiflis, and that of Stambul and the See also:coast cities of See also:Asia See also:Minor. The latter is much overlaid with Tatar or See also:Turkish words, and the Tatar See also:order of words distinguishes the modern Armenian See also:sentence from the See also:ancient. It remains to say that classical Armenian resembles rather the modern See also:idiom of See also:Van than of western Armenia. Itwas a plastic and See also:noble language, capable of rendering faithfully, yet not servilely, the Greek See also:Bible and Greek fathers. Often theArmenian translators, and especially after the 5th century, rendered word for word, preserving the order of the Greek. This literalness, though unpleasing from a See also:literary standpoint, gives' to many of their ancient versions the value almost of aGreek codex of the See also:age in which the version was made. The same literalness also characterizes their See also:translations from Syriac. The Armenians had a See also:temple literature of their own, which was destroyed in the 4th and 5th centuries by the See also:Christian See also:clergy, so thoroughly that barely twenty lines of it Literature. survive in the history of See also:Moses of Khoren (Chorene). Their Christian literature begins about 400 with the invention of the Armenian See also:alphabet by Mesrop. This was probably an older alphabet to which Mesrop merely added vowels; but, in order to pacify the Greek ecclesiastics and the See also:emperor See also:Theodosius the Less, the Armenians concocted a See also:story that it had been divinely revealed. Once their alphabet perfected, the catholicus Sahak formed a school of translators who were sent to Edessa, See also:Athens, See also:Constantinople, See also:Alexandria, See also:Antioch, Caesarea in See also:Cappadocia, and elsewhere, to procure codices both in Syriac and Greek and translate them. From Syriac were made the first version of the New Testament, the version of See also:Eusebius' History and his Life of See also:Constantine (unless this be from the original Greek), the homilies of See also:Aphraates, the Acts of Gurias and Samuna, the See also:works of Ephrem Syrus(partlypublished in four volumes by the See also:Mechitharists of See also:Venice).

They include the commentaries on the Diates. saron and the Paulines, Laboubna and History of Addai, the Syriac canons of the Apostles. From the original Greek were rendered in the 5th century the following authors and works. An See also:

asterisk is prefixed to those which have been printed:—*Eusebius' Chronicon; *See also:Philo's lost commentaries on See also:Genesis and See also:Exodus, and his lost See also:treatises on See also:Providence and Animals, as well as a great number of his works still preserved in Greek; *the entire Bible (the New Testament is a recension after Antiochene Greek texts of an older version made from the oldest Syriac See also:text); *the See also:Alexander See also:romance of the pseudo-See also:Callisthenes; *Epistles and Acts of See also:Ignatius of Antioch; *many homilies of See also:Gregory Thaumaturgus; *See also:Athanasius (a large number of works, many of them wrongly attributed); See also:Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses and Ad Marcianum (recently found) ; *See also:Hippolytus' commentaries on the See also:Song of Songs and See also:Daniel, and many fragments; *See also:Timotheus' life of Athanasius; See also:Theophilus of Alexandria, various homilies; *Eusebius of Gabala or Severianus, fifteen Homilies; *See also:Cyril of See also:Jerusalem, Catecheses and See also:Letter to Constantine; *See also:Wisdom of Ahikar; *the See also:Apology of See also:Aristides; Gregory of Nazianzus, See also:thirty-four Homilies; *See also:Nonnus' work on Gregory (perhaps a version of 6th century); See also:Basil of Caesarea, *Hexaeaneron, fifteen Homilies on faith, See also:epistle to Terentius,' ascetic writings and canons, on the See also:Holy Spirit, to Cledonius, &c. Helladius of Caesarea's life of Basil; Gregory of Nyssa's See also:treatise on the Beatitudes, and many other homilies, Commentaries on Song of Songs, *On Human Nature (See also:Nemesius), panegyrics on sundry Martyrs, and other works (but some of these versions belong to the beginning of the 8th century) ; See also:Epiphanius of See also:Salamis, Commentary on the Gospels, *On weights and measures, *See also:Physiologus, canons and many homilies; See also:Evagrius of See also:Pontus, Homilies and Ascetic works, Letters to Melania, &c.; See also:John See also:Chrysostom, *Homilies. and 'Prayers, in very beautiful language; *See also:Proclus, See also:patriarch of Constantinople, many homilies; *Nilus the Ascete, On the Eight See also:Spirits of Evil; *See also:Josephus, On the Jewish War; See also:Dionysius of Alexandria, *Against See also:Paul of See also:Samosata and other fragments: Acacius, See also:bishop of Melitene, *Letters to Sahak; See also:Julius of See also:Rome (fragments); See also:Zenobius, Homilies (? from Syriac); the History of Julius See also:Africanus was perhaps also translated in this century, but it is lost. To the 5th century belong the versions of the Nicene canons, of which the Armenian text as preserved is barely intelligible, of the eucharistic See also:rites called of *Basil, *Chrysostom, *Ignatius and others; also the *See also:Hours or See also:Breviary, the *Rites of Ordination, See also:Baptism, of the making and See also:release of Penitents, of See also:Epiphany, and perhaps the many rites of See also:animal See also:sacrifice, for these are partly originals, partly versions of lost Greek texts. A mass of martyrs' acts were also rendered in this century, including parts of the lost collection made by Eusebius. Among these the *Acts and Apology of See also:Apollonius restore a lost 2nd-century text. The *Canons of Sahak also purport to be translated from a Greek original about the year 330. The Armenians were so busy in this century translating Greek and Syriac fathers that they have See also:left little that is original. Still a number of See also:historical works survive: *Faustus of See also:Byzantium relates the events of the See also:period A.D. 344–392 in a work See also:instinct with life and racy of the See also:soil. It was perhaps first composed in Greek, but it gives a faithful picture of the court of the See also:petty sovereigns of Armenia, of the political organization, of the blood feuds of the clans, of the planting of Christianity.

See also:

Procopius preserves some fragments of the Greek. The *History of Taron, by Zenobius of Glak, is a somewhat legendary See also:account of Gregory the Illuminator, and may have been written in Syriac in the 5th, though it was only Armenized in a later century. *Elisaeus Wardapet wrote a history of Wardan (Vardan), and of the war waged for their faith by the Armenians against the Sassanids. He was an See also:eye-See also:witness of this struggle, and gives a See also:good account of the contemporary Mazdaism which the Persians tried to force on the Armenians. *See also:Lazar of Pharp wrote a history embracing the events of the 5th century up to the year 485, as a continuation of the work of Faustus. *A history of St Gregory and of the See also:conversion of Armenia by See also:Agathangelus is preserved in Greek, Armenian and Arabic. The Arabic edited by See also:Professor Marr of St See also:Petersburg seems to be the oldest form of text. The Greek is a rendering of the Armenian. It is a compilation, and the second See also:part which contains the Acts of Gregory and of St Rhipsima seems wholly legendary. The Greek and Armenian texts were edited together by See also:Lagarde. *The History of Armenia by Moses of Khoren (Chorene) relates events up. to about the year 450. It is a compilation, devoid of historical method, value or veracity, from all sorts of previous authors, mostly from those which already existed in an Armenian dress.

Some critics put down the date of See also:

composition as See also:low' as about 700, and it was certainly retouched in the See also:late 6th century. *A long See also:volume of rhetorical exercises, based on See also:Aphthonius, is also ascribed to Moses of Khoren, and appears to be of the 5th century. The *See also:geography which passes under his name may belong to the 7th century. Various homilies of Moses survive, as also of Elisaeus. Corium wrote in this century a *Life of Mesrop, and Eznik a *Refutation of the Sects, based largely on antecedent Greek works. The sects in question are Paganism, Mazdaism, Greek See also:Philosophy and Manicheism. A volume of *homilies under the name of Gregory the Illuminator, but not his, also belongs to this century, and a See also:series of ascetic discourses attributed to John Mandakuni, who was patriarch 478–500. Of the 6th and 7th centuries few works survive except See also:anonymous versions of the *Acts of See also:Thomas (perhaps from the Syriac), of the *Acts of See also:Peter and Paul, *of John (pseudo-Prochorus), *of See also:Bartholomew, and of other apostles; also of *the Acts of Paul and Thekla, *of See also:Titus, *of the Protevangel, *of the Testaments of the patriarchs, of the *See also:Gospel of Nicodemus, or Acts of See also:Pilate, of the *See also:Book of See also:Adam, of the *Deaths of the Prophets, of the *History of See also:Baruch, of the *Apocalypses of Paul and of the Virgin See also:Mary, of the *Acts of See also:Sylvester, and of an enormous number of other similar apocryphs. Some of these may be of the 5th century. Two volumes of these apocryphs of the Old and New Testaments have recently been published at Venice. To these centuries belong also the versions of the Acts of the See also:council of See also:Ephesus, of Gangra, See also:Laodicea and of other See also:councils. To thelate 7th century belong the *calendarial works of Ananiah of Shirak, who also has left a *chronicon compiled from Eusebius, Andreas of See also:Crete, Hippolytus and other See also:sources.

In the *Letter-book of the Patriarchs, lately printed at Tiflis, are to be found a number of controversial monophysite tracts of these and the succeeding three centuries; important for See also:

church history. It includes a mass of documents relative to the churches of Iberia and See also:Albania. The See also:chief literary See also:monument of the 7th century is the history of the See also:wars of See also:Heraclius and of the early See also:Mahommedan conquests in Asia Minor, by the bishop Sebeos; who was an eye-witness. The *history of the Albanians of the Caucasus, by Moses Kalankatuatzi, also belongs to the end of this century. To the middle of the 7th century also belong the translations of See also:Aristotle's treatises *On the Categories, and *On See also:Interpretation, and of *See also:Porphyry's Isagoge, as well as of voluminous Greek commentaries on these books; the version of the *See also:Grammar of Dionysius Thrax and an incomplete See also:Euclid. The translator was one See also:David called the Invincible who also wrote monophysite tracts. At the end of this 7th century one Philo of Tirak is supposed to have made the version of the *History :. of See also:Socrates, unless indeed it was made earlier. To this century also seems to belong the Armenian version of a *history of the Iberians, by Djuansher, a work full of valuable See also:information. The early 8th century was a time of great literary activity. Gregory Asheruni wrote an important *commentary on the Jerusalem Lectionary, and his friend *John the catholicus (717–728) commentaries on the other liturgical works of his church; he also collected all existing See also:canon See also:law, Greek Or Armenian, respected in his church, wrote *against the See also:Paulicians and See also:Docetae, and composed many beautiful See also:hymns. *Leoncius the See also:priest has left a history of the first caliphs, and Stephanus, bishop of Siunik, translated the *controversial works of Cyril of Alexandria (whose Glaphyra and commentaries, however, seem to have been translated at an earlier period).

He also translated the works of Dionysius the Areopagite, commented on the Armenian breviary and wrote hymns. In the 9th century Zachariah, catholicus, the correspondent of See also:

Photius, wrote many eloquent homilies for the various church feasts. Shapuh Bagratuni wrote a history of his age, now lost. Mashtotz, catholicus, collected in one volume the Armenian rituals. In the Loth century (c. 925) the catholicus John VI. issued his *history of Armenia, and Thomas Artsruni a *history of his elan carried up to the year 936. See also:Ananias of Mok (943–965) wrote a great work against the Paulicians, unfortunately lost. See also:Chosroes wrote a *commentary on the eucharistic rites and breviary; *Mesrop a history of Nerses the Great; *See also:Stephen of Asolik wrote a history of the See also:world, and a commentary on See also:Jeremiah; *Gregory of Narek his famous meditations and hymns; See also:Samuel Kamrdjtsoretzi a commentary on the Lectionary based on Gregory Asheruni. In the 11th century the catholicus Gregory translated many Acts of Martyrs, and John Kozerhn wrote a history, now lost, as well as a work on the Armenian calendar; Stephen Asolik a *history of Armenia up to the year 1004; *Aristaces of Lastiverd a valuable history of the conquest of Armenia by the Seljuk caliphs. We may also mention a *monophysite work against the Greek See also:doctor Theopistus by Paul of Taron; *letters and poems of Gregory Magistros, who also was the translator of the *Laws, See also:Timaeus and other dialogues of See also:Plato. The 12th century saw many remarkable writers, mostly in Cilician Armenia, viz. Nerses the Graceful (d.

1165), author of an *See also:

Elegy on the taking of Edessa, of *voluminous hymns, of long *See also:Pastoral Letters and Synodal orations of value for the historian of eastern churches. *Samuel of See also:Ani composed a See also:chronicle up to 1179. Nerses of Lambron, See also:archbishop of See also:Tarsus, left a *Synodal oration, a *Commentary on the See also:liturgy, &c., and his contemporary Gregory of Tlay an *Elegy on the See also:capture of Jerusalem, and various *dogmatic works. In this century the *history of See also:Michael the Syrian was translated; Ignatius and Sargis composed *commentaries on See also:Luke and *the See also:catholic epistles, and *See also:Matthew of Edessa a valuable history of the years 952-r36, continued up to 1176 by Gregory the priest. Mechithar (Mekhitar) Kosh (d. 1207) wrote an elegant *Book of Fables, and compiled a *corpus of See also:civil and canon law (partly from See also:Byzantine codes). In the 13th century the following works or authors are to be noticed:—*history of Kiriakos of Ganzak, which contains much about the See also:Mongols, Georgians and Albanians; *Malakia the See also:monk's history of the See also:Tatars up to 1272; *Chronicle of Mechithar of Ani (fragmentary); *Vahram's rhymed chronicle of the kings of Lesser Armenia; *history of the world, by Vartan, up to 1269. In this century mostly falls the redaction of a large See also:fable literature, recently edited in three volumes by Professor Marr of St Petersburg. 14th century: *history of Siunik, by Stephen Orbelian, archbishop of that See also:province 1287–1304; *Sempat's chronicle of Lesser Armenia (952–1274), carried on by a continuator to 1331; *Mechithar of Airivanq, a chronography; *Hethoum's account of the Tatars, and chronography of the years 1076–1307. John of Orotn (d. 1388) compiled commentaries on John's gospel and the Paulines, and wrote homilies and monophysite works; his See also:disciple Gregory of Dathev (b. 1340) compiled a *Summa theologiae called the Book of Questions, in the See also:style of the Summa of See also:Aquinas, which had been translated into Armenian c.

1330, as were a little later the *Summa of Albertus and works of other schoolmen. 15th century: *History of Tamerlane, by Thomas of Medsoph, carried up to 1447. 17th century, Araqel of See also:

Tabriz wrote a *history of the Persian invasions of Armenia in the years 1602-1661. In the above See also:list are not included a number of medical, astrological, calendarial and philological or lexicographic works, mostly written during or since the Cilician or crusading See also:epoch. The hymns used in Armenian See also:worship rarely go back to the 5th century; and they were still few in number and brief in length when Nerses the Graceful and his contemporaries more than doubled their number and bulk in the 12th century. Most Armenian poems embody acrostics, and their poets began to See also:rhyme in the 8th century or thereabouts. Since the 15th century a certain number of profane poets have arisen, whose work is less jejune on the whole than that of the hymn and canticle writers of an earlier age. Gregory Magistros (d. 1058) abridged the whole of the Old and New Testaments in a *rhyming poem, and set a See also:fashion to later writers. Such works as *Barlaam and Josaphat, the *History of the Seven Sages, the *Wisdom of Ahikar, the *See also:Tale of the See also:City of See also:Bronze, were freely turned into See also:verse in the 13th and following centuries. It will be realized from the above enumeration of works written in each century that Armenian literature was purely monkish. There was no epic or romance literature; although this was not lacking in the contiguous country of See also:Georgia, where there seem to have always been knights and ladies willing to read and keep alive a literature of See also:poetry and narrative, not altogether suitable for monks, and more akin to Persian literature.

Other forms of faith than the orthodox had a hold in Armenia, particularly the Nestorian and the Manichean. Sundry works of Mani were translated in the year 588, but are lost. Perhaps certain works of Diodore of Tarsus survive, but the orthodox monks were so vigilant that there is little See also:

chance of finding any other monuments than those of the stereotyped orthodoxy. The 16th century saw the first books printed in Armenian. A See also:press was set up at Venice in 1565, and the See also:psalms and breviary were printed. In 1584 the See also:Roman propaganda began its issue of Armenian books with a Gregorian calendar. In the 17th century presses were working at Lembourg, See also:Milan, See also:Paris, See also:Isfahan (where in 164o a large See also:folio of the Lives of the Fathers of the Desert appeared), in See also:Leghorn, See also:Amsterdam (where in 1664 the first edition of the Hymn-book, in 1666 the first Bible, and in 1667 the first See also:Ritual were printed), See also:Marseilles, Constantinople, See also:Leipzig and See also:Padua. The press which has done most in See also:printing Armenian authors is that of the Mechitharists of Venice. Here in 1836 was issued a magnificent See also:thesaurus of the Armenian language, with the Latinand Greek equivalents of each word. At that time there was no See also:dictionary of any language and literature to be compared with this for exhaustiveness and accuracy. There are now Armenian presses all over the world, reprinting old books or issuing new works, often translations of modern writers, English, French, See also:Russian and See also:German. The chief collections of old Armenian See also:MSS. are : at the See also:convent of *See also:Echmiadzin at Valarshapat; at Stambul in the library of the fathers of St See also:Anthony; at Venice in the Mechitharist convent of See also:San Lazaro; at the *Mechitharist convent in See also:Vienna; in the *Royal library at Vienna; in the *Paris Bibliotheque Nationale; in the Vatican library; in the See also:British Museum; in the *Bodleian; in the See also:Rylands library; in the *See also:Berlin and *See also:Munich See also:libraries; *in See also:Tubingen; in St Petersburg, and in the *Lazarev See also:institute at See also:Moscow; at New Joulfa, the Armenian suburb of Isfahan.

Private collections have been made by Mr Rendel See also:

Harris in See also:Birmingham (presented to the university of See also:Leiden); at Parham and elsewhere. A printed See also:catalogue exists of those marked with an asterisk.

End of Article: ARMENIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

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