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Carlisle (Luguvallium), and passed on to Birrens. The third route, starting from Chester and passing up the western coast, is more complex, and exists in duplicate, the result perhaps of two different schemes of road-making. Forts in plenty can be detected along it, notably See also:

Manchester (See also:

MANCUNIUM

Mancunium or Mamucium), Ribchester (Bremetennacum), See also:

Brougham Castle (Brocavum), Old See also:

PENRITH

Penrith (Voreda), and on a western See also:

BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch, Watercrook near See also:

Kendal, Waterhead near the hotel of that name on See also:

AMBLESIDE

Ambleside, Hardknott above Eskdale, See also:

MARYPORT

Maryport (Uxellodunum), and Old Carlisle (possibly Petriana). In addition, two or three See also:

CROSS

cross roads, not yet sufficiently explored, maintained communication between the troops in See also:

YORKSHIRE

Yorkshire and those in See also:

CHESHIRE

Cheshire and See also:

LANCASHIRE

Lancashire.

This road system bears See also:

PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain marks of having been made at different times, and with different objectives, but we have no See also:

EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence that any one See also:

PART

part was abandoned when any other was built. There are signs, however, that various forts were dismantled as the See also:

COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country See also:

GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew quieter. Thus, Gellygaer in South Wales and Hardknott in Cumberland have yielded nothing later than the opening of the 2nd century. Besides these detached forts and their connecting roads, the north of Britain was defended by Hadrian's wall (See also:

FIGS

figs. 2 and 3). The See also:

HISTORY

history of this wall has been given above. The actual See also:

WORKS

works are threefold. First, there is that which to-See also:

day forms the most striking feature in the whole, the wall of stone 6–8 ft. thick, and originally perhaps 14 ft. high, with a deep ditch in front, and forts and " mile castles " and turrets and a connecting road behind it. On the high See also:

moors between Chollerford andGilsland its traces are still plain, as it climbs from hill to hill and winds along perilous precipices. Secondly, there is the so-called " Valium," in reality no vallum at all, but a broad See also:

FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat-bottomed ditch out of which the See also:

earth has been See also:

CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast up on either side into See also:

REGULAR

regular and continuous mounds that resemble ramparts. Thirdly, nowhere very clear on the See also:

SURFACE

surface and as yet detected only at a few points, there are the remains of the " See also:

TURF

turf wall," constructed of sods laid in regular courses, with a ditch in front. This turf wall is certainly older than the stone wall, and, as our See also:

ancient writers mention two wall-builders, Hadrian and Septimius $everus, the natural inference is that Hadrian built his wall of turf and See also:

Severus reconstructed it in stone.

The reconstruction probably followed in general the See also:

LINE

line of Hadrian's wall in See also:

order to utilize the existing ditch, and this explains why the turf wall itself survives only at See also:

SPECIAL

special points. In general it was destroyed to make way for the new wall in stone. Occasionally (as at Birdoswald) there was a deviation, and the older See also:

WORK

work survived. 600FFI MO,+O NORM MOO.O OF V ALLUM Of VALLVN souni This See also:

CONVERSION (Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or ,change)

conversion of earthwork into stone in the See also:

AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of Severus can be paralleled from other parts of the Roman empire. The meaning of the vallum is much more doubtful. See also:

John See also:

HODGSON, BRIAN HOUGHTON (1800-1894)

Hodgson and See also:

Bruce, the See also:

LOCAL

local authorities of the 19th century, supposed that it was erected to defend the wall from southern insurgents. Others have ascribed it to See also:

Agricola, or have thought it to be the wall of Hadrian, or even assigned it to pre-Roman natives. The two facts that are clear about it are, that it is a Roman work, no older than Hadrian (if so old), and that it was not intended, like the wall, for military See also:

defence. Probably it is contemporaneous with either the turf wall or the stone wall, and marked some limit of the See also:

CIVIL

civil See also:

province of Britain. Beyond this we cannot at See also:

PRESENT

present go. formidable garrisons, sheltered from barbarians and in easy See also:

con- tact with the Roman empire, stretched the lowlands of southern and eastern Britain. Here a civilized life grew up, and Roman culture spread.

This part of Britain became Romanized. In the lands looking on to the See also:

THAMES

Thames See also:

ESTUARY (from the Lat. aestuarium, a place reached by aestus, the tide)

estuary (See also:

Kent, See also:

Essex, Middle- See also:

SEX (Lat. sexes; possibly connected with secure, to cut)

sex) the See also:

PROCESS

process had perhaps begun before the Roman See also:

CONQUEST

conquest. It was continued after that event, and in two ways. To some extent it was definitely encouraged by the Roman See also:

government, which here, as elsewhere, founded towns peopled with Roman citizens—generally discharged legionaries—and endowed them with See also:

FRANCHISE (from 0. Fr. franchise, freedom, franc, free)

franchise and constitution like those of the See also:

ITALIAN

Italian munici- palities. It See also:

DEVELOPED

developed still more by its own automatic growth. The coherent See also:

CIVILIZATION

civilization of the See also:

Romans was accepted by the Britons, as it was by the Gauls, with something like See also:

ENTHUSIASM

enthusiasm. Encouraged perhaps by sympathetic Romans, spurred on still more by their own instincts, and led no doubt by their nobles; they began to speak Latin, to use the material resources of Roman civilized life, and in See also:

time to consider themselves not the unwilling subjects of a See also:

FOREIGN

foreign empire, but the See also:

BRITISH

British members of the Roman See also:

state. The steps by which these results were reached can to some extent be dated. Within a few years of the Claudian invasion a colonia, or muni- cipality of time-expired soldiers, had been planted in the old native See also:

capital of See also:

Colchester (See also:

CAMULODUNUM

Camulodunum), and though it served at first mainly as a fortress and thus provoked British hatred, it came soon to exercise a civilizing in- fluence. At the same time the British town of See also:

VERULAMIUM

Verulamium (St Albans) was thought sufficiently Romanized to deserve the municipal status of a munici See also:

PLUM

plum, which at this See also:

period differed little from that of a colonia. Romanized Britons must now have begun to be numerous. In the See also:

GREAT

great revolt of See also:

BOADICEA

Boadicea (6o) the nationalist party seem to have mas- sacred many thousands of them along with actual Romans.

Fifteen or twenty years later, the See also:

MOVEMENT

movement increases. Towns See also:

SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring up, such as See also:

SILCHESTER

Silchester, laid out in Roman See also:

FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion, furnished with public buildings of Roman type, and filled with houses which are Roman in fittings if not in plan. The See also:

BATHS

baths of Bath (See also:

AQUAE (Lat. for "waters'')

Aquae Sulis) are exploited. Another colonia is planted at See also:

Lincoln (Lindum), and a third at See also:

Gloucester (Glevum) in 96. A new " See also:

CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief See also:

JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge " is appointed for increasing civil business. The tax-gatherer and recruit- See also:

ing officer begin to make their way into the hills. During the 2nd century progress was perhaps slower, hindered doubt- less by the repeated risings in the north. It was not till the 3rd century that country houses and farms became See also:

COMMON

common in most parts of the civilized See also:

AREA

area. In the beginning of the See also:

STALL (0. Eng. steall, stael, cf. Du. stal, Ger. and Swed. Stall, a common Teutonic word for a place, station, place for standing in; the root is the Indo-European std–, to stand, seen also in Latin stabulum, Greek vraO bs, and in stallion, an entire hors

STALL uFGDASncN FPT ON DtTON NORTH geemeni.. (Rncheserr) ,'gH.biinncirm From Social England, by permission of See also:

CASSELL, JOHN (1817–1865)

Cassell & Co., Ltd. 4th century the skilled artisans and builders, and the See also:

CLOTH

cloth and See also:

corn of Britain were equally famous on the See also:

CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent. This probably was the age when the prosperity and Romanization of the province reached its height.

By this time the town populations and the educated among the country-folk spoke Latin, and Britain regarded itself as a Roman See also:

LAND

land, inhabited by Romans and distinct from See also:

OUTER

outer barbarians. The civilization which had thus spread over See also:

HALF

half the See also:

ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island was genuinely Roman, identical in kind with that of the other western provinces of the empire, and in particular with that of northern See also:

Gaul. But it was defective in quantity. The elements which compose it are marked by smaller size, less See also:

WEALTH

wealth and less splendour than the same elements elsewhere. It was also uneven in its See also:

DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution. Large tracts, in particular See also:

WARWICKSHIRE

Warwickshire and the adjoining midlands, were very thinly inhabited. Even densely peopled areas like north Kent, the See also:

Sussex coast, west See also:

GLOUCESTERSHIRE

Gloucestershire and east See also:

Somerset, immediately adjoin areas like the See also:

WEALD, THE

Weald of Kent and Sussex where Romano-British remains hardly occur. The See also:

ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration of the civilized part of the province, while subject to the See also:

GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor of all Britain, was practically entrusted to local authorities. Each Roman See also:

MUNICIPALITY

municipality ruled itself and a territory perhaps as large as a small See also:

COUNTY (through Norm. Fr. comae, cf. O. Fr. cunte, conk', Mod. Fr. comae, from Lat. comitatus, cf. Ital. comitato, Prov. comtat; see COUNT)

county which belonged to it. Some districts belonged to the Imperial Domains, and were administered by agents of the See also:

EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor. The See also:

REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest, by far the larger part of the country, was divided up among the old native tribes or cantons, some ten or twelve in number, each grouped See also:

ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round some country town where its See also:

COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council (ordo) met for cantonal business. This cantonal system closely resembles that which we find in Gaul.

It is an old native See also:

ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element recast in Roman See also:

FORM (Lat. forma)

form, and well illustrates the Roman principle of local government w[ST by See also:

DEVOLUTION, WAR OF (1667-68)

devolution. See also:

GATE

GATE In the general framework of Romano-British life the two chief features were the town, and the See also:

VILLA

villa. The towns of the province, as we have already implied, fall into two classes. Five See also:

MODERN

modern cities, Colchester, Lincoln, York, Gloucester and St Albans, stand on the sites, and in some fragmentary fashion See also:

bear the names of five Roman municipalities, founded by the Roman government with special charters and constitutions. All of these reached a considerable measure of prosperity. None of them rivals the greater municipalities of other provinces. Besides them we trace a larger number of country towns, varying much in size, but all possessing in some degree the characteristics of a town. The chief of these seem to be cantonal capitals, probably developed out of the See also:

MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market centres or capitals of the See also:

CELTIC

Celtic tribes before the Roman conquest. Such are Isurium Brigantum, capital of the See also:

BRIGANTES (Celtic for " mountaineers " or " free, privileged ")

Brigantes, 12 M. north-west of York and the most northerly Romano-British town; Ratae, now See also:

Leicester, capital of the Coritani; Viroconium, now Wroxeter, near See also:

Shrewsbury, capital of the Cornovii; Venta Silurum, now Caerwent, near See also:

CHEPSTOW

Chepstow; Corinium, now See also:

CIRENCESTER (traditionally pronounced Ciceter)

Cirencester, capital of the Dobuni; Isca Dumnoniorum, now See also:

Exeter, the most See also:

WESTERLY

westerly of these towns; Durnovaria, now See also:

Dorchester, in See also:

DORSET, EARLS, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF

Dorset, capital of the Durotriges; Venta Belgarum, now See also:

Winchester; Calleva Atrebatum, now Silchester, lo m. south of See also:

READING

Reading; Durovernum Cantiacorum, now Canter-See also:

bury; and Venta Icenorum, now Caistor-by-See also:

Norwich. Besides these country towns, Londinium (See also:

LONDON

London) was a See also:

rich and important trading town, centre of the road system, and the seat of the See also:

FINANCE

finance officials of the province, as the remarkable See also:

OBJECTS

objects discovered in it abundantly prove, while Aquae Sulis (Bath) was a See also:

spa provided with splendid baths, and a richly adorned See also:

temple of the native See also:

PATRON

patron deity, Sul or Sulis, whom the Romans called See also:

MINERVA

Minerva. Many smaller places, too, for example, Magna or Kenchester near See also:

HEREFORD

Hereford, Durobrivae or See also:

Rochester in Kent, another Durobrivae near See also:

PETERBOROUGH

Peterborough, a site of uncertain name near See also:

Cambridge, another of uncertain name near Chesterford, exhibited some measure of town life. As a specimen we may take Silchester, remarkable as the one tewn in the whole Roman empire which has been completelyand systematically uncovered.

As we see it to-day, it is an open space of Too acres, set on a hill with a wide prospect east and south and west, in shape an irregular hexagon, Snchester. enclosed in a See also:

CIRCUIT (Lat. circuitus, from circum, round, and ire, to go)

circuit of a mile and a half by the massive ruins of a See also:

CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city wall which still stands here and there some 20 ft. high (fig. 4). Outside, on the north-east, is the grassy hollow of a tiny See also:

AMPHITHEATRE (Gr. 441, around, and O&arpov, a place for spectators)

amphitheatre; on the west a line of earthworks runs in wider circuit than the walls. The area within the walls is a vast expanse of cultivated land, unbroken by any vestige of antiquity; yet the See also:

SOIL

soil is thick with See also:

TILE (0. Eng. tigel, Fr. tuile, connected with Lat. tegula)

tile and potsherd, and in hot summers the unevenly growing corn reveals the remains of streets beneath the surface. Casual excavations were made here in 1744 and 1833 ; more systematic ones intermittently between 1864 and 1884 by the Rev. J. G. Joyce and others; finally, in May 189c, the See also:

COMPLETE

complete uncovering of the whole site was begun by Mr G. E. See also:

Fox and others. The work was carried on with splendid perseverance, and the uncovering of the interior was completed in 1908. The chief results concern the buildings.

Though these have vanished wholly from the surface, the See also:

FOUNDATIONS

foundations and lowest courses of their walls survive fairly perfect below ground: thus the plan of GATE the town can be minutely recovered, and both the See also:

CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the buildings which make up a See also:

PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place like Calleva, and the character of Romano-British buildings generally, become plainer. Of the buildings the chief are: I. See also:

FORUM (Lat. from foris, " out of doors ")

Forum.—Near the middle of the town was a rectangular See also:

block covering two acres. It comprised a central open See also:

court, 132 ft. by 140 ft. in size, surrounded on three sides by a See also:

CORRIDOR (Fr. corridor, from Ital. corridore, Med. Lat. corridorium, a " running-place," from currere, to run)

corridor or See also:

CLOISTER (Lat. claustrum; Fr. cloitre; Ital. chiostro; Span. claustro; Ger. Kloster)

cloister, with rooms opening on the cloister (fig. 5). On the See also:

FOURTH

fourth side was a great See also:

hall, with rooms opening into it from behind. This hall was 270 ft. See also:

long and 58 ft. wide; two rows of Corinthian columns ran down the middle, and the See also:

CLERESTORY, or CLEARSTORY (Ital. chiaro piano, Fr. clairevoie, claire etage, Ger. Lichtgaden)

clerestory roof may have stood 50 ft. above the See also:

FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vloer, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine, and a floor, masculine)

floor; the walls were frescoed or lined with See also:

MARBLE (from Lat. marmor, Gr. pApµapos, shining stone)

marble, and for See also:

ORNAMENT (Lat. ornare, to adorn)

ornament there were probably statues. Finally, a corridor ran round outside the whole block. Here the local authorities had their offices, See also:

JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice was administered, traders trafficked, citizens and idlers gathered. Though we cannot apportion the rooms to their precise uses, the great hall was plainly the See also:

BASILICA

basilica, for meetings and business; the rooms behind it were perhaps See also:

law courts, and some of the rooms on the other three sides of the quadrangle may have been shops. Similar municipal buildings existed in most towns of the western Empire, whether they were full municipalities or (as probably Calleva was) of lower See also:

RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank. The Callevan Forum seems in general simpler than others, but its basilica is remarkably large.

Probably the British See also:

CLIMATE

climate compelled more indoor life than the sunnier south. 2. Temples.—Two small square temples, of a common western-provincial type, were in the east of the town; the See also:

CELLA

cella of the larger measured 42 ft. sq., and was lined with Purbeck marble. A third, circular temple stood between the forum and the south gate.

End of Article: BORCOVICIUM

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