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AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED
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See also:AGRICULTURE IN THE See also:UNITED STATES
Agriculture has been the See also:chief and most characteristic See also:work of the See also:American See also:people, that in which they have achieved the greatest results in proportion to the resources at command, that in which their economic superiority has been most strikingly See also:manifest. In ten years from 1790, the mean See also:population of the See also:period being 4,500,000, 65,000 sq. m. were for the first See also:time brought within the limits of See also:settlement, crossed with roads and See also:bridges, covered with dwellings, both public and private, much of it also cleared of primeval See also:forest; and this in addition to keeping up and improving the whole extent of previous settlements, and See also:building towns and cities, at a See also:score of favoured points. In the next See also:decade, the mean number of inhabitants' being about 6,5oo,000, population extended itself over 98,000 sq. m. of absolutely new territory, an See also:area eight times as large as See also: It is no exaggeration to say that the chief manufacture of the United States, See also:prior to 1900, was the manufacture of 5,940,000 farms, comprising 841,200,000 acres. The people of the United States, finding themselves on a continent containing an almost limitless extent of land of See also:fair See also:average fertility, having at the start but little accumulated capital and urgent occasions for the See also:economy of labour, have elected to regard the land in the earliest stages of occupation as practically of no value, and to regard labour as of high value. In pursuance of this view they have freely sacrificed the land, so far as was necessary, in See also:order to See also:save labour, systematically cropping the See also:fields on the principle of obtaining the largest results with the least See also:expenditure, limiting improvements to what was demanded for immediate uses, and caring little about returning to the soil an See also:equivalent for the properties taken from it in the harvests of successive years. But, so far as the See also:northern states are concerned, the enormous profits of this alleged wasteful cultivation have in the See also:main been applied, not to See also:personal See also:consumption, but to permanent improvements,—not indeed to improvements of the land, but to what were still more needed in the situation, namely, improvements upon the land. The first-fruits of a virgin soil have been expended in forms which have vastly enhanced the productive See also:power of the country. The land, doubtless, as one See also:factor of that productive power, became temporarily less efficient than it would have been under a conservative See also:European treatment; but the See also:joint product of the three factors—land, labour and capital—was for the time enormously increased. Under this regimen the fertility of the land, of course, in time necessarily declined, sooner or later, according to the nature of the crops grown and to the degree of See also:original strength in the soil. Resort was then had to new fields farther See also:west. The granary of the continent moved first to western New See also:York, thence into the Ohio valley, and then, again, to the See also:banks of the See also:Mississippi. The north and See also:south See also:line dividing the See also:wheat product of the United States into two equal parts was in 1850 See also:drawn along the 82nd See also:meridian (81° 58' 49")• In 186o that line was drawn along the 86th (86° 1' 38"), in 1870 along the 89th (88° 48' 40"), in 188o along the 9oth (9o° 30' 46"), in 1890 along the 93rd (93° 9' 18"), and in 1900"along the 95th (94° 59' 23"). Meanwhile one portion of the inhabitants of the earlier settlements joined in the See also:movement across the See also:face of the continent. As the See also:grain centre passed on to the west they followed it, too restless by character and See also:habit to find See also:pleasure in the work of See also:stable communities. A second portion of the inhabitants became engaged in raising, upon limited areas, small crops, See also:garden vegetables and See also:orchard fruits, and in producing See also:butter, See also:milk, poultry and eggs, for the See also:supply of the cities and manufacturing towns which had been built up out of the abundant profits of the primitive agriculture. Still another portion of the agricultural population gradually became occupied in the more careful and intense culture of the cereal crops upon the better lands, the less eligible fields being allowed to See also:spring up in See also:brush and See also:wood. Deep ploughing and thorough drainage were resorted to; fertilizers were employed to bring up and to keep up the soil; and thus began the serious systematic agriculture of the older states. Something continued to be done in wheat, but not much. New York raised 13 million bushels in 185o; See also:thirty years later she raised 112 million bushels; and fifty years later 102 million bushels. See also:Pennsylvania raised 151 million bushels in 185o; in 188o she raised 192 million bushels; and in 1900 202 million bushels. More is done in See also:Indian See also:corn (See also:maize), that most prolific cereal, the backbone of American agriculture; still more is done relatively in See also:buckwheat, See also:barley and See also:rye. Pennsylvania, though the See also:eleventh See also:state in wheat See also:production in 1905, stood first in rye and second in buckwheat (ninth in oats). New York was only twenty-first in wheat, but first in buckwheat (tenth in barley), See also:fourth in rye. We do not, however, reach the full significance of the situation until we See also:account for the fourth portion of the former agricultural population, in noting how naturally and fortunately commercial and manufacturing cities spring up in the sites which have been prepared for them by the lavish expenditure of the enormous profits of a primitive agriculture upon permanently useful improvements of a constructive character. These towns are the gifts of agriculture. Besides the See also:extension of cultivated area, very little was accomplished in the way of agricultural improvement before 185o. With some few exceptions the methods of cultivation were substantially the same as those of colonial days, and were marked by crudeness, See also:waste and a See also:general adherence to See also:rule-ofthumb principles. The See also:year 185o roughly marks the beginning of a period of improvement and development. The Irish See also:famine of 1846 and the See also:German See also:political troubles of 1848 were followed by an unprecedented See also:emigration to See also:America of highly desirable European labourers, for whom there were cheap and abundant lands. The period from 185o to 187o was marked by a steady growth, which, in the western states, was highly stimulated by the Civil War. While this conflict withdrew a certain amountof productive See also:energy from agricultural pursuits, it tended at the same time to increase the value of farm labour and of farm products and to extend the use of machinery in order to offset the deficient labour supply. Agricultural machinery had been employed before the war, but only to a very small extent. In 1864, 70,000 reapers and mowers were manufactured, twice as many as in 1862, and manufacturers were unable to supply the demand. Moreover, in the years 186o, 1861 and 1862 the wheat crops of Great See also:Britain and the European continent were failures, while those of the United States, far removed from the See also:theatre of military operations, were unusually large. The wheat exports to Great Britain in 1861 were three times as great as those of any previous year, and the strong demand from abroad was an additional stimulus to higher prices. In 1864 agricultural prices were from See also:loo to 200 % higher than in 1861, while transportation charges had only slightly advanced and in some instances had actually decreased. In the See also:middle of the war the farmers' profits were normal; toward the end they had increased enormously. This marvellous agricultural prosperity of a nation engaged in one of the See also:world's most formidable See also:wars has no counterpart in See also:modern See also:history. In the decade from 186o to 1870 there was a steady increase in cultivated area, in agricultural products and in population. The value of the farm lands in the northern states in 1870 exceeded that of 186o by five dollars an See also:acre. On the other See also:hand, the farm lands of the See also:southern states had declined in value See also:town almost equal amount; but after 1870 these states also made substantial progress, and in 188o they produced more See also:cotton than in 186o, when the greatest See also:crop under the slave See also:system was grown. Since 1870 the most important factors in this development have been the employment of more scientific methods of production and the more extensive use of machinery. The study of soils with a view of adapting to them the most suitable crops and fertilizers; the increased See also:attention given to diversified farming and crop rotation; the introduction and successful growth of new See also:plants (e.g. the date See also:palm in See also:Arizona and See also:California, and See also:tea in South Carolina); See also:tile drainage; the See also:ensilage of See also:forage; more careful selection in breeding; the use of inoculation to prevent See also:Texas See also:fever in See also:cattle and See also:cholera in See also:swine, of tuberculin to discover the presence of See also:tuberculosis in cows, of organic ferments to hasten the progress of butter-making, of the " Babcock test " for ascertaining the amount of See also:fat in milk, of fungicides and insecticides to destroy See also:fruit and See also:vegetable pests,—such are but a few manifestations of the spread of scientific knowledge among the farming population of the United States. Nearly every See also:county has some sort of agricultural society; in 1899 there were about 1500 of these organizations, some of which, especially those holding See also:annual fairs, received state aid. With the improvement in technical processes of production came the See also:conquest of the arid regions of the western states. See also:Irrigation was first employed in the west by the See also:Mormons in 1847; but as See also:late as 187o only about 20,000 acres had been irrigated. In 188o the irrigated area was approximately 1,000,000 acres, and in the decade from 1889 to 1899 it increased from 3,631,381 to 7,539,545 acres, a gain of 1o7.6 %. By 1902 there had been a still further increase to 9,478,852 acres, a gain of 25.7 % in three years. As many of the streams available for irrigation purposes See also:lie within more than one state, the See also:control of See also:water supply is a proper See also:matter for federal See also:jurisdiction, and in See also:June 1902 See also:Congress provided for an extensive system of irrigation works in thirteen states and three territories. The cost of the work is defrayed from the proceeds of the sales of See also:government lands within the states and territories affected by the See also:act. The measure is not paternalistic; the settlers on the lands, which are divided into farms of not less than 40 nor more than 16o acres, are required to make annual payments to the government in proportion to the water service they have received, until the original cost of the works has been met. The first of these works, the so-called Truckee-See also:Carson project, of See also:Nevada, was completed in June 1905, and at the end of that year eight projects, in as many different states, were under construction; bids had been received for three more, and the seven others had received the approval of the secretary of the interior. With these initial undertakings it was estimated that 1,000,859 acres could be reclaimed. In addition to supplying the soils with water, means have been found of See also:ridding them of their See also:alkali, or of rendering it harmless; and this is an See also:element of reclamation hardly less important than irrigation itself. A third step in the reclamation of See also:desert lands is arid farming—that is, the adapting to the soils of crops that require a minimum amount of moisture, and the utilization, to the fullest possible extent, of the meagre amount of rainfall in the region. Experiments conducted in this direction in See also:Utah produced promising results. The development of farming machinery has kept See also:pace with the general progress in scientific agriculture. Although numerous See also:patents were issued for such machinery before 185o, its use, with the exception of the cotton See also:gin, was very restricted before that date. Even See also:iron ploughs were not in general use until 1842, and a really scientific plough was practically unknown before 1870. Thirty years later the large farms of the Pacific states were ploughed, harrowed and sowed with wheat in a single operation by fifty-See also:horse-power See also:traction engines See also:drawing ploughs, harrows and See also:press drills. Since 185o there has been a transition from the sickle and the See also:scythe to a See also:machine that in one operation mows, threshes, cleans and sacks the wheat, and in five minutes after touching the See also:standing grain has it ready for the See also:market. See also:Hay-stackers, See also:potato planters and diggers, feed choopers and grinders, manure-spreaders, check-See also:row corn planters and ditch-digging See also:machines are some of the See also:common labour-saving devices. By the 28th of See also:August 1907 the United States Patent See also:Office had issued patents for 13,212 harvesting machines, 6352 threshers, 668o harrows and diggers, 9649 seeders and planters, and 13,171 ploughs. In the manufacture of agricultural machinery the United States leads the world. The See also:total value of the implements and machinery used by farmers of the United States in 188o was $406,520,055; in 1890 $494,247,467; in 1900 $761,261,550, a gain in this last decade of 54 %. The total value of the implements and machinery manufactured in 1850 was $6,842,611; in r88o $68,640,486; in 1890 $81,271,651; in 'goo $101,207,428. These figures, however, are a very poor indication of the actual use of machinery, on account of the rapid decrease in prices following its manufacture on a more extensive See also:scale and by improved methods. The effects of the new agriculture are apparent from the following figures: By the methods of 183o it required 64 See also:hours and 15 minutes of See also:man-labour and cost $3.71 to produce an acre of wheat; by the methods employed in 1896 it required 2 hours and 58 minutes of man-labour and cost 72 cents. To produce an acre of barley in 183o required 63 hours of man-labour and cost $3'59; in 1896 it required 2 hours and 43 minutes and cost 6o cents. An acre of oats produced by the methods of 1830 required 66 hours and 15 minutes of man-labour and cost $3'73; the methods of 1893 required only 7 hours and 6 minutes and cost $1.07. With the same unit of labour the average quantity of all leading crops produced by modern methods is about five times as great as that produced by the methods employed in 185o, and the cost of production is reduced by one See also:half. From 188o to 190o the average number of acres of leading crops per male worker increased from 23.3 to 31.0, or 34 %; the number of horses per worker from 1.7 to 2.3, or 35%; and the value of agricultural product per See also:person employed from $286.82 to $454'37, or 58'4 %. There are numerous other factors that have operated to the benefit of the agriculturist. Increased transportation facilities and See also:lower See also:freight charges have widened his market. The processes of See also:canning, packing, preserving and See also:refrigerating have produced a similar effect, and have also provided a means for the disposal of surplus perishable products that otherwise would be lost. The utilization of by-products, as, for example, the See also:conversion of cotton See also:seed into oil, fertilizers and See also:food for live stock, has become another source of profit. Great economic and social changes have resulted from thisprogress. There has been a great See also:division of labour in agriculture. Makers of agricultural implements, of butter and See also:cheese, cotton ginners, grist and wheat millers, are now classed in the United States See also:census reports as manufacturers, but all their work was once done on the farm. The See also:farmer is now more of a specialist and more dependent on other See also:industries than formerly. He has changed from a producer for See also:home consumption or a See also:local market to a producer for a world market. Unfortunately, his knowledge of economic See also:laws has lagged behind his progress in scientific agriculture. The farming class at times have experienced periods of great depression, largely on account of their inability to adjust their crops to changing conditions in the world's markets, and in such cases have been prone to seek a remedy in See also:radical legislation. Periods of agricultural discontent at different times have been marked by the political activity of the " Grangers " and of the " Farmers' See also:Alliance," and even by the formation of new political parties such as the Greenback party in 1874 and the Populist or People's party in 1892—whose strength lay mainly in the agricultural states. The new See also:industrial conditions that produced ccm• binations among manufacturers were much slower in their effect upon the farming element, but gradually led to increasing co-operation and to the organization of the growers of various commodities for marketing their crops. The fruit growers of California and the See also:tobacco growers of See also:Kentucky have furnished interesting examples of such organizations. Under the improved conditions there is less drudgery on the farm; the farmer does more work, produces more, and yet has more leisure than formerly. Better roads, rural See also:free See also:mail delivery, See also:telephone and electric lines are removing the See also:isolation of country See also:life, and to some extent are diminishing the attractions of the cities for the rural population. Covering as it does the breadth of the North American continent, with 3,000,000 sq. m. of land See also:surface, not including See also:Alaska and the islands, of which over 800,000,000 acres are in farms and over 400,000,000 in actual cultivation, representing every variety of soil and all the See also:climatic life zones of the world, except the extreme boreal and the hottest tropical, the United States affords an important subject of study in respect of agriculture. Its cotton, wheat and See also:meat are large factors in all markets, and its many other agricultural products are distributed throughout the civilized world. To the student the equipment and methods of agriculture in the United States See also:form as interesting a subject of examination as do its resources and production. In quantity, See also:distribution and inter-relation of See also:heat and moisture —the chief factors in agricultural production—the United States is greatly blessed. We find in this vast territory all the agricultural belts mapped by the biologist, producing all varieties of cereals, fruits and breeds of live stock, whilst all kinds of soils, adapted to different crops, are spread out at all altitudes from 8000 ft. down to See also:sea-level. The See also:story of the vast and varied agriculture of the United States can be outlined by extracts from the figures published by the Census, the Agricultural and other government departments. As a result of the great supply of available land the number of farms in the United States increased between 185o and 1900 from 1,449,073 to 5,739,657; their total acreage Farms. increased from 293,560,614 to 841,201,546 acres; their improved acreage increased from 113,032,614 to 414,793,191 acres; and their unimproved' acreage from 180,528,000 to 426,408,355 acres. Table See also:XXVII. exhibits the increases of number of farms, total and improved acreage by decades. The largest percentage of increase of improved land was 50.7, from 187o to 188o; the lowest was in the decade 186o to 187o, the period of the Civil War, and was 15.8. The chief cause of this wonderful development of agriculture is the large area of cheap public lands which has been available for immigrants and natives alike. Up to 1906, under the See also:Homestead Act of the loth of May 1862, the number of entries, both final and, pending, covered 185,385,000 acres. Between 1875 and 1905 the public and Indian lands sold for See also:cash and under homestead and See also:timber culture laws, as well as those allotted by See also:scrip, granted to the colleges of agriculture 1" Unimproved " land includes land which has never been ploughed, mown or cropped, and also land once cultivated but now overgrown with trees or shrubs. and mechanic arts and other institutions, and by military See also:bounty land warrants, and selected by states and railroad corporations, covered about 430,000,000 acres. In addition to this, the states and railroad corporations sold a large amount of land to farmers of which we have no accurate See also:record. This vast territory, greater Number of Acreage. N The United States. Farms. Total. Improved. 1850 to 1860 41.1 38.7 44'3 186o „ 187o 30.1 o.I 15.8 1870 „ 188o 50.7 31.5 50.7 I88o „ 1890 13.9 16.2 25.6 1890 „ 1900 25'7 35-0 16•o 1850 to 1900 296.0 186.5 267'1 in extent than See also:Germany and See also:France combined, was added to the farms of the country in thirty years. In many cases railroad building has made the settlement of the public lands possible for the first time, and the building of See also:branch lines, by providing means for transporting products to market, has greatly facilitated the acquisition of other lands. The mileage of See also:railways increased 310.7 % between 1870 and 1905. The interesting fact is that this increase corresponds geographically to the increase in farms. The agricultural See also:statistics do not include any farm of less than three acres unless it produced at least $500 See also:worth of products in the preceding year. The census of 1900 showed that the average See also:size of farms was 146 acres, or nine acres more than in 1890 and 57 acres less than in 185o. This fact, however, does not indicate a general tendency toward the See also:con- solidation of holdings. The increase in the average size of farms in the whole country is due to the extension of grazing lands in the Rocky See also:Mountain region and in Texas, and to the enlargement of the wheat fields in the Mississippi valley. On the other hand, in the southern states there has been a steady breaking up of holdings and decrease in the average size of farms since the See also:close of the Civil \See also:Var. In the New See also:England states, where dairying has become the leading agricultural See also:industry, there was an increase of 2.2 acres in the size of farms during the decade 189o–1900. This increase was more than offset by the decrease in the See also:Atlantic states from New York to See also:Maryland inclusive (2.8 acres), where there has been a subdivision of farms following the increased attention given to the growing of fruits and vegetables for cities. The same tendency is noted in the states of Ohio, See also:Indiana and See also:Illinois. As will be seen from Table See also:XXVIII., the average farm, which steadily diminished in size from 185o to 188o, increased between 1880 and 1900. Improved Land therein. Whole Farm. Proportion of Improved Land. 185o 202.6 38.5 186o 199.2 40•I 1870 153'3 46'3 188o 133'7 53.1 1890 136'5 57'4 1900 146.6 49.3 The acreage of North Atlantic farms decreased from 112.6 in 185o to 95.3 in 1890, and increased in 1890–1900 to 96.5 acres. In the South Atlantic states the average was 376.4 acres in 185o, and there has been steady decrease, so that in 1900 it was Io8.4, or one-third less than the average for the entire country. In the north central states the averages of 185o and 1900 were nearly the same (143.3 and 144.5 respectively), with the minimum (121.9 acres) in 1880. The south central states averaged 291 acres in 1850, 321.3 in 186o, 144 in 189o, and 155.4 in 1900. The maximum decade for the western states was that ending in 1850 (694'9 acres), and the mini-mum 188o (312.9) ; and the average in 1900 was 386.1 acres. Table See also:XXIX. gives the number of farms, together with their distribution, under different forms of tenure in the years 188o, 1890 and 1900. The steady See also:drift towards farm tenancy of late is believed to be injurious to production; but it is impossible to prove this, so great has been the aggregate increase in products. The number of persons engaged in agriculture as a business in Agri- 1900 was 10,381,765. or 36 % of all persons in gainful cultural occupations. It is interesting to See also:note that 977,336 of these oacupa- were women. This is an increase of 2,667,890 persons over dons. 1880. Thus, if the farm See also:family is the same size as that of the See also:remainder of the population—it is probably slightly larger—the agricultural population would be 36 % of the whole. 1. 14Statisticians usually put it at 40 %, and this is probably more nearly correct (Table See also:XXX.). The See also:wages paid farm labourers, as ascertained by the See also:Department of Agriculture, are rather See also:low compared with the average wages of labour, but not lower than the wages of other unskilled labour. The average monthly wage of the agricultural labourer, without See also:board, was $19.50 in 1870, $16.42 in 188o, $18.33 in 1890, $17.70 in 1895, and $20.23 in 1899, when the maximum for any state was $45.10 in Nevada, the minimum $10.06 in South Carolina. The wages of the American farm labourer were at this last date named (1899) higher than for any other farm labourer save in See also:Canada and the See also:British colonies of See also:Australasia; though lower than wages paid in American cities, they have greater purchasing power. J. R. See also:Dodge, in " Farm Labour in the United States " (vol. xi., See also:Report of Industrial See also:Commission on Agriculture, &c., 1901), says: " In addition to wages the married labourer has a See also:house free of See also:rent, a garden, firewood, pasturage and other perquisites. The enterprising labourer usually becomes a See also:tenant and afterwards a farm-owner.” The figures for farm capital and the value of agricultural products are so vast that it is extremely difficult to put them in an intelligible form. The farm capital of the United States reported by value of the census of 1900 reached $20,514,002,000, a sum more farms and than four times the capital invested in manufactures, products. the main classes being, in See also:round See also:numbers:—Land, fences and buildings, $16,674,690,000; machines and implements. $761,262,000; live stock $3,078,050,000. The products of the farms in the census year 1899 were valued at $4,739,119,000. Between 185o and 1900 the aggregate farm capital increased 416 %. The greatest increase of farm capital was between 185o and 186o, See also:lot %; the next was the decade 1880–1890, when the increase was 32 %. Between 1890 and 1900 the increase was 28%. Occupation. Total Persons. Dairymen and women Io,875 Farmers and farm superintendents 5,674,875 Farm labourers . 4,410,877 Gardeners, nurserymen and viticulturists 61,788 Lumbermen and raftsmen 72,020 Stock-raisers, herders, &c. 84,988 See also:Turpentine-farmers and labourers 24,737 Wood-choppers . 36,075 Other pursuits 5,530 Total . 10,381,765 The growth of farm area and of capital invested in agriculture was followed bya proportionate increase in the chief crops (TableXXXI.). The distinguishing feature of the period 187o–1880 was the See also:rate of increase of barley, Indian corn, wheat and oats. Since 1870 the production of nearly all of the farm crops increased more rapidly than the population, the most See also:absolute See also:proof of the substantial prosperity of the people. The increase in population for the fifty years from 1840 to 1890 was 267 %; from 1870 to 188o, 30 %; from 188o to 1890, 25 %; from 1890 to 1900, 21 %; but the food and other supplies far exceeded the demands of even this great population. —Millions of Bushels. Indian Corn. Wheat. Oats. Barley. 1870 1094 235 247 26 188o 1717 498 418 45 1890 1489 399 523 67 1900 2105 522 8o9 58 1905 2707 693 953 136 Table XXXII. gives important facts with regard to the cereal production of the United States between 187o and 1905. The average farm See also:price of wheat declined, as is shown in that table, from $1.05 per See also:bushel for the decade 1870–188o to 65.3 cents for the period 1890-1899. The farm prices of the other i Includes farms operated by owners, See also:part-owners, owners and tenants, and managers. 2 Tenants of farms rented for a See also:share of the products. II Year. Number of Number of farms operated by Percentage of farms operated by Farms. Owners.' Cash Share owners. Cash Share Tenants. Tenants.' Tenants. Tenants. 188o 4,008,907 2,984,306 322,357 702,244 74'5 8•o 17'5 1890 4,564,641 3,269,728 454,659 840,254 71.6 Io•o 18.4 1900 5,737,372 3,712,408 751,665 1,273,299 64.7 13•I 22.2 m See also:illustration of the cereal production of the United States. The to figures for wheat, oats and Indian corn are presented in Tables XXXIII., XXXIV. and See also:XXXV. he The acreage and production of wheat have steadily increased. The acreage in Indian corn, the great American crop, reached its highest in 1902, 94,043,613 acres, and its production its highest figure in 1905, 2,707,993,540 bushels. Producing as the United States does so much more than its people per-United States, by Periods can consume, its exports form a large per- centage of some of the crops, as Table See also:XXXVI. shows. Large portions of some of these crops, like Indian corn and oats, are exported in the form of animals and See also:animal products (meats, See also:lard, hides, &c.). The hay crop is almost entirely used in this way, and the tendency is to convert more and more of these crops into these higher-priced products. Still, the time is far distant when domestic consump- tion will come anywhere near overtaking domestic production, especially of wheat and the other cereals. The certain extension of acreage with the growth of demand and price, the increased use of agricultural See also:im- plements, and the improvement of methods will be sure to keep up a large surplus for export for many years to come. The Depart- ment of Agriculture has found that for home use there were required per See also:head 5.5 bushels of wheat, 28.6 bushels of Indian corn, and 10.7 bushels of oats, the computations being made from the figures for population, production and exports for 1888-1892; in 1905, 6.15 bushels of wheat and wheat-See also:flour, 28.59 bushels of Indian corn and corn-See also:meal. The following number of acres in these crops was required, therefore, to supply the home demand for 1888-1892:-o'43 of an acre in wheat, 1.15 acre in corn, and 0.43 acre in oats per head of the population. Taking the year United States in 1890-1905. Average Average Domestic Exports, Year. Acreage. Yield per Production. Farm Price Farm Value, including Flour, Acre. per Bushel, 1st Dec. Fiscal Years 1st Dec. beginning 1st See also:July. Acres. Bushels. Bushels. Cents. Dollars. Bushels. 1890 36,087,154 II'I 399,262,000 83.8 334,773,678 106,181,316 1891 39,916,897 15.3 61I,780,000 83.9 513,472,711 225,665,812 1892 38,554,430 13'4 515,949,000 62.4 322,111,881 191,912,635 1893 34,629,418 11'4 396,131,725 53'8 213,171,381 164,283,129 1894 34,882,436 13.2 460,267,416 49.1 225,902,025 144,812,718 1895 34,047,332 13'7 467,102,947 50.9 237,938,998 126,443,968 1896 34,618,646 12.4 427,684,346 72.6 310,602,539 145,124,972 1897 39,465,066 13'4 530,149,168 8o•8 428,547,121 217,306,005 1898 44,055,278 15.3 675,148,705 58.2 392,770,320 222,694,920 1899 44,592,516 12.3 547,303,846 58.4 319,545,259 186,096,762 1900 42,495,385 12'3 522,229,505 61.9 323,515,177 215,990,073 1901 49,895,514 15'0 748,460,218 62.4 467,350,156 234,772,516 1902 46,202,424 14'5 670,063,008 63•o 422,224,117 202,905,598 1903 49,464,967 12.9 637,821,835 69.5 443,024,826 120,727,613 1904 44,074,875 12.5 552,399,517 92.4 510,489,874 44,112,910 1905 47,854,079 14.5 692,979,489 74'8 518,372,727 . . in 1890-1905. Average Domestic Exports, Average Farm Price Imports during Year. Acreage. Yield per Production. Farm Value, including Oatmeal, Fiscal Years Dec. Fiscal Years Acre. Bushel, 1st beginning 1St July. per 1st Dec. beginning 1st July. Acres. Bushels. Bushels. Cents. Dollars. Bushels. Bushels. 1890 26,431,369 19'8 523,621,000 42.4 222,048,486 1,382,836 41,848 1891 25,581,861 28'9 738,394,000 31'5 232,312,267 10,586,644 47,782 1892 27,063,835 24.4 661,035,000 31.7 209,253,611 2,700,793 49,433 1893 27,273,033 23'4 638,854,850 29.4 187,576,092 6,290,229 31,759 1894 27,023,553• 24'5 662,036,928 32.4 214,816,920 I,708,824 330,317 1895 27,878,406 29.6 824,443,537 19'9 163,655,068 15,156,618 66,602 1896 27,565,985 25.7 707,346,404 18.7 132,485,033 37,725,083 893,908 1897 25,730,375 27.2 698,767,809 21.2 147,974,719 73,880,307 25,093 1898 25,777,110 28.4 720,906,643 25.5 186,405,364 33,534,264 28,098 1899 26,341,380 30'2 796,177,713 24'9 198,167,975 45,048,857 54,576 1900 27,364,795 29.6 809,125,989 25.8 208,669,233 42,268,931 32,107 1901 28,541,476 25'8 736,808,724 39.9 293,658,777 13,277,612 38,978 1902 28,653,144 34'5 987,842,712 30.7 303,584,852 8,381,805 150,065 1903 27,638,126 28.4 784,094,199 34.1 267,661,665 1,960,740 183,983 1904 27,842,669 32'I 894,395,552 31.3 279,900,013 8,394,692 55,699 1905 28,046,746 34'0 953,216,197 29.I 277,047,537 • • . • cereals declined less during the thirty years. Corn declined from an average farm price of 42.6 cents per bushel for 187o-188o 34.4 cents in 1890-1899. The average production per acre shows nothing conclusive with regard to the fertility of the soil of t country. The expansion of the crop area usually causes a lowering of the average yield per acre by distributing the culture, fertilize &c., over more surface. Likewise the contraction of crop area w usually increase the average yield per acre of the entire See also:count fertilizers, will country. Indian Corn. Wheat. Oats. Period. Average Average Average Average Average Average Farm Price Yield per Farm Price Yield per Farm Price Yield per per Bushel. Acre. per Bushel. Acre. per Bushel. Acre. Dollars. Bushels. Dollars. Bushels. Dollars. Bushels. 187o to 188o . . 0.426 27.1 I.05 12.4 0.353 28'4 1880 „ 1889. . '393 24•I •827 12.1 •309 26.6 1890 ,, 1899. . '344 24.1 •653 13.1 •277 26.2 1900 ,, 1905. . •440 24.9 •706 13.6 •318 30.7 1870 ,, 1880. 0.738 Barley 0.70I Rye 0.715 Buckwheat 22.1 14.1 17.7 1880 ,, 1889. . •589 2I.7 •622 11.9 •642 12.8 1890 „ 1899• • '433 23.3 '522 14.0 •507 16.8 1900 „ 1905• • '433 25.9 •570 15'7 •588 17.9 The average yield of wheat per acre was 12.4 bushels in the decade 1870-1880, and 13.1 in the period 189o-1899; of Indian corn, 27.1 in 187o-188o, and 24.1 in 1880-1899 continuously. Oats See also:fell off from 28.4 in 1870-188o to 26.2 bushels per acre in 189o-1899. The averages for the years 1900-1905 show an increase over the previous decade both in yields and (with the exception of the price of barley) in prices of all the cereals. The agricultural returns for 1890-1905 may be taken as an United States in 1890-1905. Average Average Farm Value, Domestic Exports, Farm Price including Corn- Year. Acreage. Yield per Production. per Bushel, 1st Dec. Meal, Fiscal Years Acre. 1st Dec. beginning 1st July. Acres. Bushels. Bushels. Cents. Dollars. Bushels. 1890 71,970,763 20.7 1,489,970,000 50'6 754,433,451 32,041,529 1891 76,204,515 27.0 2,060,154,000 40.6 836,439,228 76,602,285 1892 70,626,658 23.1 1,628,464,000 39.4 642,146,630 47,121,894 1893 72,036,465 22.5 1,619,496,131 36'5 591,625,627 66,489,529 1894 62,582,269 19.4 1,212,770,052 45.7 554,719,162 28,585,405 1895 82,075,830 26.2 2,151,138,580 25.3 544,985,534 101,100,375 1896 81,027,156 28.2 2,283,875,165 21.5 491,006,967 178,817,417 1897 80,095,051 23-8 1,902,967,933 26.3 501,072,952 212,055,543 1898 77,721,781 24.8 1,924,184,660 28.7 552,023,428 L17 7,255,046 1899 .82,108,587 25.3 2,078,143,933 30'3 629,210,110 213,123,412 1900 83,320,872 25.3 2,105,102,516 35'7 751,220,324 181,405,473 1901 91,349,928 16.7 1,522,519,891 60•5 921,555,768 28,028,688 1902. .94,043,613 26.8 2,523,648,312 40.3 1,017,017,349 76,639,261 1903 88,091,993 25.5 2,244,176,925 42.5 952,868,80, 58,222,061 1904 92,231,581 .26.8 2,467,48o,934 44'1 1,087,461,440 90,293,483 1905 94,011,369 28.8 2,707,993,540 41.2 1,116,696,738 Annual Average. Crop. 1878-1882. 1888-1892. 1894-1896. 1896-1904. 1905 p• Wheat . . . 27.84 17.68 15.96 29.9 7.99 Indian corn . . 4.82 3'49 5.39 6'4 3.66 Rye I0.30 12.21 19.5 • Oats . . . •37 •8o 2.22 3.7 Barley . . . 1.55 .. 12.96 12.15 Potatoes . . . '37 •30 0.31 Cotton . . 72.8o 66.79 73.60 66.31 61.55 Horses. Mules. Milch Cows. See also:January I. - Number. Value. Number. Value. Number. Value. 1880 11,201,800 $613,296,611 1,729,500 $105,948,319 12,027,000 $279,899,420 1890 14,213,837 978,516,562 2,331,027 182,394,099 15,952,883 352,152,133 1900 13,537,524 603,969,442 2,086,027 111,717,092 16,292,360 514,812,106 1906 18,718,578 1,510,889,906 3,404,061 334,680,520 19,793,866 582,788,592 Other Cattle. See also:Sheep. Swine. Total Value of January I. Farm Animals. Number. Value. Number. Value. Number. Value.. 188o 21,231,000 $341,761,154 40,765,900 $90,230,537 .34,034,100 $145,7$1,515 $1,576,917,556 1890 36,849,024 560,625,137 44,336,072 100,659,761 51,602,780 243,418,336 2,418,766,028 1900 27,610,054 689,486,260 41,883,065 122,665,913 37,079,356 185,472,321 2,228,123,134 1906 47,067,656 746,171,709 50,631,619 179,056,144 52,102,847 321,802,571 3,675,389,442 United States on 1st January, 1880-1906. Year. Horses. Mules. Mitch Other Sheep. Swine. Cows. Cattle. 188o $54'75 $61.26 $23.27 $16.10 $2.21 $4.28 1890 68.84 78.25 22.14 15.21 2.27 4.72 1900 44.61 53.56 31.60 24.97 2.93 5.00 1906 80.72 98.31 29.44 15'85 3'54 6.18 After the Civil War the number of horses increased and prices gradually declined. In 1893 the number of horses reached 16,206,802 (an increase of over 5,005,002 or 44.6 % over the number in 188o), and in 1906, 18,718,578. The average farm price of horses increased from $54'75 in 1880 to $74.64 in 1884, after which there was a decrease to $31.51 in 1896, followed by a rise to $80.72 in 1906. The extension of See also:street-See also:car lines, and the substitution of See also:cable and electric power for that of horses, the use of bicycles and, later, of automobiles, and the improvement of farm-machinery, in which horses are less and less used as power-producers and See also:steam is more common, have been factors in decreasing the demand for these 1 For 1899-1900 to 1904-1905 1890 as an illustration, this gave a surplus area in wheat of t 1,264,478 animals. The fluctuation in prices of mules has been parallel to acres, of 2,648,404 acres in Indian corn, and of 238,162 acres in oats. that for horses. Tables See also:XXXVII. and XXXVIII. give the number, total value The returns for milch cows show an increase throughout the and average price of farm animals in 188o, 1890, 1900 and 1906. period 188o-1899 in every year, with the exception of 1895-1899, after which there was a steady rise in numbers. For 1878-19o5. thferomfirst9 18tento oyears99 18the•2 , num• %bersTheincreasedval total 3aue6of°Jo, milchand cows increased each year until ,1884, then decreased until 1891, with a See also:gradual increase until the end of the period. The farm price of milch cows See also:rose from $23.27 in 1880 to $31.37 in 1884, then fell to $21.40 in 1892, after which there was a steady increase to $31.6o in 1899, and afterwards a slight fall, $29.44 being the average farm value on the 1st of January 1906. No marked changes in the numbers of sheep have taken See also:place. During the period 188o-1890 there was an increase in numbers amounting to about 8.8 %. After 1893 there was a rather steady decrease, with United States, 188o-I906. fluctuations amount- See also:ing to a marked depression after 1894• This industry is very susceptible to adverse influences, and See also:felt keenly a depression in the price of See also:wool. The increase began again in 1898, and in 1903 the figure of 63,964;876 was reached; in 1906 it was 50,631,619. The numbers and values of swine constantly fluctuate with the movement and value of the Indian corn crops. The returns for 1890 (51,602,780) showed a numerical increase of 51.6% over those of 188o; then followed a steady decrease in numbers down to 1900 (37,079,356), since which time there has been considerable increase, so that in 1906 there were 52,102,847-the maximum excepting 1901, when there were 56,982,142 swine on farms. The movement in values was similar to that in numbers. From $4.28 in 188o, the average farm price of hogs increased steadily to $6.75 in 1883. The lowest figure, $4.15, was reached in 1891, and after numerous fluctuations it became $4.4o in 1849 and $7.78 in 1903; in 1906 it was $6.18. The total value of farm animals showed a steady increase from 188o to 189o, with slight See also:variations in 1885 and 1886. Following 1890 there was a steady decrease with the exception of slight in-creases in 1892 and 1893. In 1880 the total value of farm animals in the United States was $1,576,917,556• In 1890 it had increased to $2,418,766,028, or 53'4 %. In 1896 the value had diminished to $1,727,926,084-a, decrease of 28.6 % from the 1890 values, and an increase of 9.6 % over those of 1880. The value in 1906 showed an increase of 133 % over that of 1880. The exports of live stock and its products have increased enormously in See also:recent years, both in quantity and value. This is especially true of the exportation of See also:beef, cattle and meat products. The exports of cattle increased from 182,750 in 1880 to 331,720 in 1895, or 81'-a %, and to 567,806 in 1905 or 210 % over 1880, and values [AMERICAN 420 from $13,340,000 in 188o to $30,600,000 in 1895, an increase of 129 %, and to $40,590,000 in 1905 or 204 %. The average value of cattle exported increased from $19 in 187o to $73 in 188o and $92 in 1895, decreasing to $71.5o in 1905. Only the best and heaviest cattle are exported, these, of course, commanding a much higher price than the average of the country. The total value of farm animals exported from the United States has fluctuated greatly. On the whole, however, the value increased from $,6,000,000 in round numbers in 188o to $46,500,000 in 1905, or 190 %. Table XXXIX. shows the number and value of live animals exported between 188o and 1905. Since 1890 there has been a great development in the production of fruit and vegetables. Local market gardens are numerous in the Year Horses. Mules. Cattle. Sheep. Swine. Total Value. ending 3oth Number. Value. Number. Value. Number. Value. Number. Value. Number. Value. June. 1880 3,060 $675,139 5,198 $532,362 182,756 $13,344,195 209,137 $892,647 83,434 $421,089 $15,865,432 1885 1,947 377,692 1,028 127,580 135,890 12,906,690 234,509 512,568 55,025 579,183 14,503,713 1890 3,501 680,410 3,544 447,108 394,836 31,261,131 67,521 243,077 91,148 909,042 33,540,768 1894 5,246 1,108,995 2,063 240,961 359,278 33,461,922 .132,3701 832,763 1,553 14,753 35,659,394 1895 13,984 2,209,298 2,515 186,452 331,722 30,603,796 405,748 2,630,686 7,130 72,424 35,702,656 19001 64,722 7,612,616 43,369 3,919,478 397,286 30,635,153 125,772 733,477 51,180 394,813 43,295,537 19011 82,250 8,873,845 34,405 3,210,267 459,218 37,566,980 297,925 1,933,000 22,318 238,465 51,822,557 19021 103,020 10,048,046 27,586 2,692,298 392,884 29,902,212 358,720 1,940,060 8,368 88,330 44,670,946 1903 34,007 3,152,159 4,294 521,725 402,178 29,848,936 176,961 1,067,860 4,031 40,923 34,631,603 1904 42,001 3,189,100 3,658 412,971 593,409 42,256,291 301,313 1,954,604 6,345 53,780 47,866,746 1905 34,822 3,175,259 5,826 645,464 567,806 40,598,048 268,365 1,687,321 44,496 414,692 46,520,784 vicinity of all cities, and highly specialized " See also:truck gardening," that is, the growing of early fruits and vegetables for transportation to distant markets where the seasons are later, has made rapid progress in the South Atlantic states. The census reports of 1900 use the potato acreage in these states as an See also:index of the rate of development of truck gardening; the southern potato being largely a truck garden crop. In seven counties of See also:Virginia the increase in acreage from 1889 to 1899 was too %; in eleven counties of North Carolina, 314 %; in five counties of South Carolina, 134 %; in nine counties of See also:Georgia, 111 %; in six counties of See also:Florida, 309 %; in five counties of See also:Alabama, 277 %. Irish and sweet potatoes are the most important vegetables raised; the North Central states leading in the production of the former and the South Atlantic states in United States, 1880-1905. the production of the latter. The growth of the Irish potato industry is shown by the following table Year. Acreage. Yield (bushels). 1870 1,325,119 114,775,000 188o 1,842,510 167,659,570 1890 2,651,579 148,289,696 1900 2,611,054 210,926,897 1905 2,996,757 260,741,294 The production of sweet potatoes, as reported in census years, was as follows:- Year. Acreage. Yield (bushels). 1869 21,709,824 1879 444,817 33,378,693 1889 524,588 43,950,261 1899 537,447 42,526,696 The total acreage in vegetables reported in 1899 was 5,753,191 or 2 % of the acreage in all crops; the value of the yield was $242,170,148 or 8.3 % of the value of all crops. The value of the fruit crop of 1899 was $131,423,517; the value of orchard fruits was $83,751,840; of grapes, $14,090,937; of small fruits, $25,030,877 ; of sub-tropical fruits, $8,549,863. The development of fruit-growing during the decade 1889-1899 appears from the following table:- Yield (bushels). Crop. 1889. 1899. Apples . 143,105,689 175,397,626 Apricots . 1,001,482 2,642,128 Cherries . 1,476,719 2,873,499
Peaches . 36,367,747 15,433,623'
See also:Pears 3,064,375 6,625,417
Plums and Prunes 2,554,392 8,764,032
In 1899 California contributed 21.5 % of the fruit crop; New York, 12.1%; Pennsylvania, 7.5 %; Ohio, 6.8 %; and See also:Michigan
4.5%.
Agricultural See also:Education.
The agricultural See also:schools of the United States owe their origin to the movement against the old classical school and in favour of technical education which began in most civilized nations about the middle of the 19th See also:century. A rapidly growing country with great natural resources needed men educated in the sciences and arts of life, and this want was first manifested
1 The demand for horses for the British troops in South See also:Africa affected these years.
2 Decrease due to a severe See also:frost in the See also:winter of 1898-1899, which destroyed the See also:peach crop in most of the states.in the United States by a popular agitation on behalf of agricultural schools. A number of so-called agricultural schools were started between 185o and 186o in the eastern and middle states, where the movement made itself most felt, but without trained teachers and suitable methods they accomplished very little. They were only ordinary schools with farms attached. The second constitution of the state of Michigan, adopted in 185o, provided for an agricultural school, and this was the first one established in the United States. The General See also:Assembly of the state of Pennsylvania incorporated the Farmers' High School, now the State See also:College, in 1854. Maryland incorporated her agricultural college in 1856, and See also:Massachusetts chartered a school of agriculture in the same year. The agitation, which finally reached Congress, led to the See also:establishment of the so-called " land-See also: The establishment of these colleges was due chiefly to the See also:wisdom and foresight of See also:Justin S. See also:Morrill, who introduced the first See also:bill for their endowment in the House of Representatives on the 14th of See also:December 1857, saw the latest one approved by the See also:president on the 30th of August 189o, and is justly known, therefore, as the See also:father of the American agricultural colleges. The first act for the benefit of these colleges, passed in 1862, was entitled " An Act donating public lands to the several states and territories which may provide colleges for the benefit of agriculture and the mechanic arts," and granted to each state an amount of land equal to 30,000 acres for each senator and representative in Congress to which the state was entitled at that time. The See also:object of the grant was stated to be " the endowment, support and See also:maintenance of at least one college " (in each state), " where the leading object shall be, without excluding other scientific and classical studies, and including military See also:tactics, to See also:teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts . . . in order to promote the liberal and See also:practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions in life." The total number of acres of land granted to the states under this act was 10,320,843, of which by far the greater part is sold. This grant has produced an endowment fund amounting to $12,045,629. The land still unsold in 1905 amounted to 844,164 acres, valued at $4,168,746. The invested land-grant funds yielded these colleges a total annual income of $855,083 in 1905. Including the United States See also:appropriation under a supplementary act of 1896, commonly known as the Second Morrill Act, which now gives each college $25,000 a year, the See also:interest on the land-grant and all other invested funds, all state appropriations and other See also:sources of See also:revenue, these colleges had in 1904-1905 a total income of $11,659,955. Sixty-six institutions had been organized under this act up to 1905, of which sixty-three maintain courses in agriculture; twenty-one are departments of agriculture and engineering in state See also:universities; twenty-seven are See also:separate colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts; and the remainder are organized in various other ways. Separate schools for persons of See also:African descent had been established under this act in sixteen southern states. These colleges take students prepared in the common schools and give them a course of from two to four years in the sciences pertaining to agriculture. Many of them offer See also:short courses, varying from four to twelve See also:weeks in length, in agriculture, See also:horticulture, forestry and dairying, which are largely attended. Agricultural experiment stations are connected with all the colleges, and many of them conduct farmers' institutes, farmers' See also:reading clubs and See also:correspondence classes.
The agricultural experiment stations of the United States See also:grew up in connexion with the agricultural colleges. Several of the colleges early attempted to establish separate departments for See also:research and practical experiments, on the See also:plan of the German stations. The act establishing the Agricultural College of See also:Mary-land required it to conduct " a See also:series of experiments upon the cultivation of cereals and other plants adapted to the See also:latitude and See also:climate of the state of Maryland." This was the first See also:suggestion of an experiment station in America, but resulted in little. The first experiment station was established at Middle-town, See also:Connecticut, in 1875, partly under state aid, partly through a See also:gift from See also:Orange See also:Judd, partly in connexion with the See also:Sheffield Scientific School, which from 1863 to 1892 was the College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts for the state of Connecticut, and partly under control of Wesleyan University, which contributed the use of its chemical laboratory; in 1877 it was removed to New Haven. The state of Connecticut made in 1875 an appropriation of $2800 (and in 1877 $5000 per annum) for this school—the first state appropriation of the kind. The state of North Carolina established, on the 12th of See also: The object of the stations was declared to be, " to conduct original researches or verify experiments on the See also:physiology of plants and animals; the diseases to which they are severally subject, with the remedies for the same; the chemical See also:composition of useful plants at their different stages of growth; the See also:comparative advantages of rotative cropping as pursued under a varying series of crops; the capacity of new plants or trees for acclimation; the See also:analysis of soils and water; the chemical composition of See also:manures, natural or artificial, with experiments designed to test their comparative effects on crops of different kinds; the See also:adaptation and value of See also:grasses and forage plants; the composition and digestibility of the different kinds of food for domestic animals; the scientific and economic questions involved in the production of butter and cheese; and such other re-searches or experiments bearing directly on the agricultural industry of the United States as may in each See also:case be deemed advisable, having due regard to the varying conditions and needs of the respective states or territories." The stations were authorized to publish annual reports and also bulletins of progress for free distribution to farmers. The See also:franking See also:privilege was given to these publications. The office of experiment stations, in the Department of Agriculture, was established in 1888 to be the head office and clearing-house of these stations. Agricultural experiment stations are now in operation in all the states and territories, including Alaska, See also:Hawaii, See also:Porto Ri2o andthe Philippines. Alabama, Hawaii, Connecticut, New Jersey and New York each maintain separate stations, supported wholly or in part by state funds; See also:Louisiana has a station for See also:sugar, and Missouri for fruit experiments. Excluding all branch stations, the total number of experiment stations in the United States is sixty, and of these fifty-five receive the national appropriation. The total income of the stations during 1904 was $1,508,820, of which $720,000 was received from the national government and the remainder was derived from See also:societies, fees for analyses of fertilizers, See also:sale of products, &c. The stations employed 795 persons in the work of See also:administration and re-See also:search; the chief classes being—directors, 71; chemists, 163; agriculturists, 47; agronomists, 41; besides numerous horticulturists, botanists, entomologists, physicists, bacteriologists, dairymen, See also:weather observers and irrigation experts. The stations publish annual reports and bulletins, besides a large number of " press " bulletins, which are reproduced in the agricultural and county papers. They act as bureaus of See also:information on all farm questions, and carry on an extensive correspondence covering all conceivable questions. Their mailing lists aggregate half a million names. In addition to the experiment stations there is in nearly every state an officer or a See also:special board whose See also:duty is to look after its agricultural interests. Eighteen states, . one territory, Porto Rico and the Philippine Islands have a single See also:official, usually called the See also:Commissioner of Agriculture. Twenty-six states, one territory and Hawaii, have Boards of Agriculture. Information concerning the Agricultural Department of the United States will be found under AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF. See the articles on the various sorts of crops; also CATTLE, HORSE, See also:PIG, SHEEP, &C.; See also:DAIRY AND DAIRY-FARMING, HORTICULTURE, FRUIT AND See also:FLOWER-FARMING, POULTRY AND POULTRY-FARMING; SOIL, GRASS AND GRASSLAND, MANURE, DRAINAGE OF LAND, IRRIGATION, See also:SOWING, See also:REAPING, HAY AND HAY-MAKING, PLOUGH, See also:HARROW, THRESHING. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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