BATRACHIA . The arguments adduced by T. H. See also:

• HUXLEY, THOMAS HENRY (1825–1895)

The See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

Gadow, in his most recent See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

When Dumeril's n, Nasal. poral. See also:

• PUPIL (Lat. pupillus, orphan, minor, dim. of pupus, boy, allied to puer, from root pm- or peu-, to beget, cf. "pupa," Lat. for " doll," the name given to the stage intervening between the larval and imaginal stages in certain insects)

in zoological nomenclature, it follows that the last-mentioned names should be adopted for the three orders into which recent batrachians are divided. 1. STEGOCEPHALIA (1Q).—Tailed, lacertiform or serpentiform batrachians, with the temporal region of the skull roofed over by postorbital, squamosal, and supratemporal plates similar to the same bones in Crossopterygian fishes, and likewise with paired dermal bones (occipitals and post-temporals) behind the parietals and supratemporals. A parietal foramen; scales or bony scutes frequently present, especially on the ventral region, which is further protected by three large bony plates—interclavicle and clavicles. the latter in addition to cleithra. Extinct, ranging from the Upper Devonian to the Trias. Our knowledge of Devonian forms is still extremely meagre, the only certain See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

Caturus, Eurycormus), to biconcave contra, and finally to the socket-and-See also:

• HALL
• HALL (generally known as SCHWABISCH-HALL, tc distinguish it from the small town of Hall in Tirol and Bad-Hall, a health resort in Upper Austria)
• HALL (O.E. heall, a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Halle)
• HALL, BASIL (1788-1844)
• HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN (1812–1888)
• HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS (1821-1871)
• HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN (1816—19oz)
• HALL, EDWARD (c. 1498-1547)
• HALL, FITZEDWARD (1825-1901)
• HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER (1837-1896)
• HALL, JAMES (1793–1868)
• HALL, JAMES (1811–1898)
• HALL, JOSEPH (1574-1656)
• HALL, MARSHALL (1790-1857)
• HALL, ROBERT (1764-1831)
• HALL, SAMUEL CARTER (5800-5889)
• HALL, SIR JAMES (1761-1832)
• HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD (1835-1894)

Embolomeri, with the centra and intercentra equally developed disks, of which there are thus two to each neural arch; these disks perforated in the See also:

• MIDDLE

Families: UROCORDYLIDAE, LIMNERPETIDAE, HYLONOMIDAE (fig. 3), MICROBRACHIDAE, DOLICHOSOMATIDAE; the latter serpentiform, apodal. E. Branchiosauria, nearest to the true batrachians; with persistent non-constricted notochord, surrounded by See also:

• BARREL (a word of uncertain origin common to Romance languages; the Celtic forms, as in the Gaelic baraill, are derived from the English)

Degraded, See also:

• WORM

(After Credner.) G. M. See also:

• WINSLOW, EDWARD (1595-1655)

See also:

• RADIUS

Distinct ribs are present at an early age in the Aglossa, as discovered by W. G. Ridewood (23). The recent addition of a third genus of Aglossa, Hymenochirus (24) from tropical Africa, combining characters of Pipa and Xenopus, has removed every doubt as to the real affinity which connects these genera. Hymenochirus is further remarkable for the presence of only six distinct pieces in the vertebral column, which is thus the most abbreviated among all the See also:

• VERTEBRATA

These forms differ very little from those that live at the present day in the same part of the world, and some of the genera (Discoglossus, Bufo, Oxyglossus, Rana) arc even identical. Palaeobatrachus (26), of which a number of species represented by skeletons of the perfect form and of the See also:

• TADPOLE

In others, which represent the perichordal type, the greater share of the formation of the whole vertebra falls to the (paired) dorsal See also:

• CARTILAGE (Lat. cartilage, gristle)

In the Ecaudata, the form of the transverse processes of the sacral vertebra varies very consider-ably, and has afforded important characters to the systematist. In accordance with the saltatorial habits of the members of this order, the vertebrae, which number from 40 to 60 in the Caudata, to up-wards of 200 in the Apoda, have become reduced to to as the ducens nerves leave the skull. normal number, viz., eight praecaudal, one sacral and an elongate coccyx or urostyle, formed by coalescence of at least two vertebrae. In some genera this coccyx is fused with the ninth vertebra, and contributes to the sy.,, II B (best rp, The rhinal process. pnl, The praenasal processes. an, The alinasal processes, shown by the removal of part of the See also:

• FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vloer, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine, and a floor, masculine)

II. V. VI. Foramina by which the optic; trigeminal and portio dura, and ab- sacrum, whilst in a few others the number of segments is still further reduced by the co-ossification of one or two vertebrae preceding that corresponding to the normal sacral and by the See also:

• FUSION

In the orders which are still represented at the present day, the bones of the skull are reduced in number and the " primordial skull," er chondrocranium (fig. 7), remains to a greater or less extent unossified, even in the adult. Huxley's figures of the skull of a caecilian (Ichlhyophis glutinosus), fig. 8, of a perennibranchiate urodele (Necturus maculosus = Menobranchus lateralis), fig. 9, and of a See also:

• FROG

In the lower See also:

• JAW (Mid. Eng. jawe, jowe and geowe, O. Eng. cheowan, connected with " chaw " and " chew," and in form with " jowl ")

Mck, Meckel's cartilage. h.s.l, Hyo-suspensorial See also:

• LIGAMENT (Lat. ligamentum, from ligare, to bind)

Ridewood (30), the whole hyobranebialapparatus forms a cartilaginous continuum, and during metamgrphosis the branchialia disappear without a trace. The hyoid of the adult frog (fig. I2) P.S. 'Lh'.. C EO. P.a. so. PS Au consists of a plate of cartilage with two slender cornua, three processes on each side, and two long bony rods behind, termed the thyro-hyals, which embrace the larynx. In the Aglossa, which are remarkable for the large size and complexity of the larynx, the thyro-hyal bones are incorporated into the laryngeal apparatus, whilst the recently discovered Hymenochirus is further remarkable for the large size and ossification of the hyoidean cornua (ceratohyals), a feature which, though not uncommon among the salamanders, is unique among the Ecaudata (31). The See also:

• PECTORAL

He as shown that, as in the Crossopterygian and. Chondrostean ganoid fishes, there di are two clavicular elements on each side; the lower corresponds to the clavicle of See also:

• REP, REPP, or REPS

In most of the Ep, Epiotic process. X, Of the pneumo- Caudata the scapular Pr.O, See also:

• PRO

The carpus, which remains cartilaginous in many of the Stegocephalia and Caudata, contains six to eight elements when the manus is fully developed, whilst the number is reduced in those forms which have only two or three digits. Except in some of the Stegocephalia, there are only four functional digits in the manus, but the Ecaudata have a more or less distinct rudiment of pollex; in the Caudata it seems to be the See also:

• OUTER

None of the Stegocephalia appears to have been provided with claws, but some living batrachians (Onychodactylus, Xenopus, Hymenochirus) have the tips of some or all of the digits protected by a claw-like horny sheath. The integument of tailed and tailless batrachians is remarkable for the great abundance of follicular glands, of which there may be two kinds, each having a special secretion, which is always more or less acrid and irritating, and affords a means of See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

Besides See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

Teeth are present in the jaws of all known Stegocephalia view of the head and Apoda and of nearly all Caudata, Siren and trunk of Ichthy- alone presenting plates of See also:

• HORN
• HORN (a common Teutonic word, cognate with Lat. cornu; cf. Gr. Kipas)
• HORN (Lat. cornu; corresponding terms being Fr. cor, trompe; Ger. Horn; Ital. corno)
• HORN, ARVID BERNHARD, COUNT (1664-1742)
• HORN, PHILIP DE MONTMORENCY, COUNT

The organs of circulation cannot be dealt with here; the most important addition made to our knowledge in recent years being found in the contributions of F. See also:

• HOCHSTETTER, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN VON, BARON (1829—1884)

In most male batrachians the testes are drained by transverse canals which open into a See also:

• LONGITUDINAL

The first See also:

• CATEGORY (Gr. Karrlyopia, " accusation ")

The eggs are also deposited singly in some of the lower Ecaudata. In many of the Ecaudata, and in a few of the Caudata and Apoda, the eggs are laid in strings or bands which are twined round aquatic plants or carried by the See also:

• PARENT, SIMON NAPOLEON (1855– )

A fairly complete See also:

• BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

(5) " Researches on the Structure, Organization and Classification of the Fossil Reptilia, vii " Phil. Trans. clxxxiii. (B), 1892, p. 311. (6) See also:

• CAMBRIDGE
• CAMBRIDGE, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• CAMBRIDGE, RICHARD OWEN (1717-1802)

See also:

• EMERY (Ger. Smirgel)

414; G. See also:

• BAUR, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN (1792-1860)

Cope, " The Origin of the See also:

• MAMMALIA (from Lat. mamma, a teat or breast)

See also:

• BROOM

B. See also:

• GEINITZ, HANS BRUNO (1814-1900)

Lydelker,, See also:

• CATALOGUE (a Fr. adaptation of the Gr. KaraXoyos, a register, from Karalyety, to enrol or pick out)

A Tadpoles transported from one place to another.—Dendrebates, Phyllobates, Sooglossus. B. Eggs protected by the parents who coil themselves round or " sit " on them.—Mantophryne, Desmognathus, Autodax, Plethodon, See also:

• CRYPTOBRANCHUS

Broili, "Ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis von Eryops megacephalus," Palaeontogr. xlvi., 1899, p. 61. (11) " Amphibian Foot-prints from the Devonian," Amer. Journ. Sci. ii., 1896, p. 374. (12) " Decouverte du plus ancien amphibien connu . dans le famennien superieur de Modave," See also:

• BULL
• BULL, GEORGE (1634–1710)
• BULL, JOHN (c. 1562–1628)
• BULL, OLE BORNEMANN (18ro-188o)

Trans. clxxxvii. (B), 1896, p. f. (15) R. Wiedersheim, See also:

• PIE

(16) " On the Structure and Affinities of the Amphiumidae," Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc. See also:

• XXIII

5, 1898, p. 147. (19) G. A. Boulenger, Catalogue, &c., 1882. (20) H. H. Wilder, "Lungenlose Salamandriden," Anat. An.z. ix., 1894, p. 216; L. Camerano, " Ricerche anatomofisiologiche intorno ai Salamandridi normalmente apneumoni," Atti See also:

• ACE (derived through the Lat. as, from the Tarentine form of the Gr. etc)

?ocix., 1894, p. 705, and xxxi., 1896, p. 512; H. H. Wilder, " Lung-less Salamanders," Anat. Anz. xii., 1896, p. 182; E. Loennberg, " Notes on Tailed Batrachians without Lungs," Zool. Anz. xix., 1896, p. 33. (21) " Note sur le batracien de Bernissart," Bull. mus. belg. iii., 1884, p.

85. 22) G. A. Boulenger, Catalogue of Batrachia Salientias. Ecaudeta 'in the Collection of the British Museum (London, 1882, 8vo). (23) " On the Development of the Vertebral Column in See also:

• PIPE

(7), iv., 1899, p. 122. (25) L. M. Vidal, Mem. Ac. See also:

• BARCELONA

Magdeb., 1885 and 1886. (27) W. Peters, "Utter die Entwickelung eincs Batrachiers. Hylodes martinicens'is, ohne Metamornhose," Mon. Berl. Ac., 1876, p. 709; A. Kappler, " Die Tierwelt See also:

• IM(K2+a2+h2—2 ah cos 0)

Soc. xii., 1886, p. 51 ; H. v. ihering, " On the Oviposition of Phyllomedusa iheringii," Ann. and Mag. N.H. (5), xvii., 1886, p. 461; H. H. See also:

• SMITH
• SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
• SMITH, ALEXANDER (183o-1867)
• SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897)
• SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842–1908)
• SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807–1862)
• SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806)
• SMITH, COLVIN (1795—1875)
• SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893)
• SMITH, G
• SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846)
• SMITH, GEORGE (184o-1876)
• SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- )
• SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874)
• SMITH, GOLDWIN (1823-191o)
• SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877)
• SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883)
• SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847– )
• SMITH, JAMES (1775–1839)
• SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631)
• SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1752–1812)
• SMITH, JOSEPH, JR
• SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822–1874)
• SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861)
• SMITH, ROBERT (1689-1768)
• SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN
• SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840)
• SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845)
• SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (1769-1839)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596)
• SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824—1903)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808—1872)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825—1891)
• SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-'894)

J. See also:

• HOLLAND
• HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
• HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
• HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
• HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
• HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
• HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
• HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART

Syst. xi., 1898, p.89; S. Ikeda, " Notes on the Breeding See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

Boulenger, " Ceratohyla bubalus carrying eggs on its back," P.Z.S., 1903, ii. p. 115; Idem. " Description of a new Tree-frog of the genus Hyla, from British Guiana, carrying eggs on the back," op. Cit., 1904, ii. p. Io6; H. S. See also:

• FERGUSON, ADAM (1723-1816)
• FERGUSON, JAMES (1710-1776)
• FERGUSON, ROBERT (c. 1637-1714)
• FERGUSON, SIR SAMUEL (1810-1886)

83. (29) " Das Hyobranchial-Skelett der Anura," Morph. See also:

• ARIA (Ital. for " air ")

(32) Morphol. Jahrb. xxiii., 1895, p. 1. (33) G. B. Howes and A. M. See also:

• DAVIES (DAvIslus), JOHN (1679-1732)
• DAVIES, DAVID CHARLES (1826-1891)
• DAVIES, RICHARD (c. 1505—1581)
• DAVIES, SIR JOHN (1569-1626)
• DAVIES, SIR LOUIS HENRY (1845— )

See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

Gadow, Anat. Anz. xviii., 1900, p. 588. (37) G. A. Boulenger, On the Presence of Pterygoid Teeth in a Tailless Batrachian, with remarks on the Localization of Teeth on the Palate," P.Z.S., 189o, p. 664. (38) Morphol. Jahrb. xiii., 1887, p. 119. (39) P.Z.S., 1888, p. 122..

(40) G. A. Boulenger, Tailless Batrachians of Europe (1897), p. 75. (41) G. Tornier, " Pseudophryne vivipara, em lebendig gebarender Frosch," Sitzb. Ak. Ber. xxxix., 1905, p. 855. (42) " Unusual Modes of Breeding and Development among Anura," Amer. Nat. xxxiv., 1900, p. 405.

(43) " Brutpflege der schwanzlosen Batrachier," Abh. Nat. Ges.. See also:

• HALLE (known as HALLE-AN-DER-SAALE, t0 distinguish it from the small town of Halle in Westphalia)
• HALLE, SIR CHARLES (originally KARL HALLE) (1819-1895)