See also:

• MAP
• MAP (or MAPES), WALTER (d. c. 1208/9)

II). The See also:

• SPECIES

With regard to the distinguishing features and the distribution of the numerous Cycatean leaves of Mesozoic See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

The See also:

• LOZENGE (from the Fr. losenge, or losange; the word also appears in Span. losanje, and Ital. losanga; perhaps derived from a word meaning a stone slab laid on a grave, which appears in forms such as Provencal lousa, Span. losa, the ultimate origin of whic

The best preserved specimens of the true Bennettites type so far described are from the Lower See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

The structure of this type of flower may be briefly described as follows. In shape and size the flower is similar to that long known as the female flower of Bennettites and Williamsonia. A number of hairy linear bracts enclose the whole; See also:

• INTERNAL

15, 7) as already described. Mr Wieland's researches have, however, demonstrated the existence in flowers of this type of the remains of a disk at the base of the receptacle, between the receptacle and the surrounding bracts, to which staminate leaves were originally attached. The flowers hither-to regarded as female were in some cases at least hermaphrodite, but the male organs had been thrown off before the complete development of the gynoecium. This fact suggests the possibility that the flowers described by Mr Wieland, in which the male organs are mature and the gynoecium is composed of very short and immature ovuliferous stalks and interseminal scales, are not essentially distinct from those which have lost the staminate leaves I, Bennettites stem: portion of transverse section of stem; a, vascular cylinder; b, leaf-traces; c, pith; d, cortex. 2, Bennettites stem, tangential section; e, flower-peduncles. 3, Bennettites stem, leaf-traces attached to the vascular cylinder and passing as See also:

• SIMPLE

I0, Bennettites flower in See also:

• VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point)

One large specimen is figured by Heer from Lower Cretaceous rocks of Greenland, and by the See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

Mr Wieland has also described young bipinnate fronds, very like those of recent species of Zamia and Encephalartos, attached to a Bennettites stem, and exhibiting the vernation characters of many recent Cycads (fig. 15, 5). In Williamsonia the stem See also:

• BORE

Hollick another type of Gymnosperm allied to the Bennettitales of the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods by its flowers, but possessing a distinctive character in its vegetative organs. There is no doubt that the Cycadophyta, using the See also:

• TERM

(A, after Yokoyama ; B, after Nalhorst; C, D, after Heer; E. after Schenk ; Male flowers, like those of Ginkgo biloba, but usually H, after Krasser. All the figures z nat. size.) characterized by a rather larger number of oval pollen-sacs on the stamens, have been found in England, Germany, Siberia and elsewhere in association with Ginkgo and Baiera foliage. The occasional occurrence of three or even four pollen-sacs on the stamens of the recent species affords a still closer agreement between the extinct and living types. Seeds like those of Ginkgo biloba have also been recorded as fossils in Jurassic rocks, and it is possible that the type of flower known as Beania, from the Inferior Oolite rocks of Yorkshire, may have been borne by Ginkgo or Baiera. The regions from which satisfactory examples of Ginkgoales (Baiera or Ginkgo) have been recorded are shown in Map B (G1-G,). Both Tertiary and Mesozoic localities are indicated in the map. An adequate account of fossil Mesozoic Conifers is impossible within the limits of this See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

See also:

• JEFFREY, FRANCIS JEFFREY

Fossil wood, described under the name Cupressinoxylon, has been recorded from several Mesozoic horizons in Europe and elsewhere, but this term has been employed in a wide sense as a designation for a type of structure met with not only in the Cupressineae, but in members of other families of Coniferae. The Abietineae do not appear to have played a prominent part before the Wealden period; various older species, e.g. Rhaetic specimens from Scania, are recorded, but it is not until we come to the Upper Jurassic and Wealden periods that this modern family was abundantly represented. Fossil wood of the Pinites type (Pityoxylon) has been described from England, France, Germany, Sweden, Spitsbergen, North America and elsewhere; some of the best British examples have been obtained from the so-called Pine-raft, the remains of See also:

• WATER

P. See also:

• PENHALLOW, SAMUEL (1665—1726)

There are, moreover, no facts furnished by fossil plants in support of the view that Angiosperms were represented either in the low-lying forests or on the slopes of the mountains of the Coal period. Passing higher up the geological series, we find but scanty records of the vegetation that existed during the closing ages of the See also:

• PERMIAN

To return to the northern hemisphere, it is clear that the Wealden flora, as represented by plants recorded from England, France, Belgium, Portugal, See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

See also:

• SOC

See also:

• MUS

Trans. cxci. (1899) ; " On the Structure. &c., of Dipteris," ibid. cxciv. (1901, with bibliography; Seward and Ford, " The Araucarieae, recent and extinct," Phil. Trans. R. Soc. (London, 1906) ; G. R. Wieland, "American Fossil Cycads," Publication See also:

• CARNEGIE
• CARNEGIE, ANDREW (1837– )

Vetenskaps. Akad. Hand. xlii., No. 5 (1907) ; The See also:

• NORWEGIAN

(1897) ; Hollick and Jeffrey, " Studies of Cretaceous Coniferous remains, Mem. New See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

A flora consisting entirely, with a single doubtful exception, of Gymnosperms and Cryptogams gives place to one containing many flowering plants; and these increase so rapidly that before long they seem to have crowded out many of the earlier types, and to have themselves become the dominant forms. Not only do Angiosperms suddenly become dominant in all known plant-bearing deposits of Upper Cretaceous age, but strangely enough the earliest found seem to belong to living orders, and commonly have been referred to existing genera. From Cretaceous times onwards See also:

• LOCAL

In rocks approximately See also:

• EQUIVALENT

the plants occur, but this has now been cleared up by the researches of Lester F. Ward, who has shown how the Secondary flora gives place to one of Tertiary character. The lower strata—i.e. those most allied to the Jurassic—contain only Gymnosperms and Cryptogams. The next See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

The leading' characteristic of this Middle Potomac flora is the proportion of Dicotyledons. Notwithstanding this apparent passage-bed, there is a marked difference between the Older and the Newer Potomac floras, very few species passing from the one to the other. Only 15 out of 405 plants in the older series occur in the beds above No. 2 of See also:

• MEEK, FIELDING BRADFORD (1817—1876)

The See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

The genera of Dicotyledons represented are Quercus, Sassafras, Platanus, Celastrophyllum, Cissites, Viburnites. In the central parts of North America the lacustrine plant-bearing deposits are of enormous thickness, the Dakota series being followed by marine Cretaceous strata known as the See also:

• COLORADO

Of trees now extinct in America, Eucalyptus and Ginkgo are perhaps the most noticeable. So large a proportion of the trees still belongs to the flora of North America that one is See also:

• APT