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POTTERY AND PORCELAIN DURING THE 19TH
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POTTERY AND See also:PORCELAIN DURING THE 19TH See also:CENTURY
The development of the manufacture of pottery and porcelain in See also:Europe and See also:America throughout the 19th century need not be treated in such detail as the See also:history of its growth up to that See also:period, for See also:modern means of communication and the See also:general See also:diffusion of knowledge have tended to destroy the individual See also:character which was so marked a feature of the pottery of different countries in previous centuries. The 19th century was distinctly the century of machinery, and, for the most See also:part, it witnessed the displacement by See also:mechanical processes of those methods of handicraft which made the older pottery individual and interesting even in its simplest forms. Collectors are pre-pared to pay very large sums for choice examples of the See also:potter's See also:art of bygone centuries, but it is doubtful if much of the pottery of the 19th century will ever be collected for its See also:intrinsic merits, though it may be preserved as an See also:illustration of the spirit of
and See also:Bristol are mainly noteworthy because they were the only See also:English factories in which a true porcelain strictly analogous to the See also:Chinese was ever manufactured. See also: The most distinctive pieces made at the Bristol factory are certain small plaques or slabs in " See also:biscuit " porcelain, usually bearing in the centre a portrait medallion or armorial See also:bearings surrounded by a See also:wreath of skilfully modelled See also:flowers. See also:Good examples of these choice productions are to be seen in the See also:British Museum.
The Plymouth factory is supposed to have adopted as its general See also:mark the alchemical See also:symbol for See also:tin. This mark was also used to a limited extent at the Bristol factory, though the
general Bristol mark was
a See also:cross or a copy of the
crossed swords of Meissen.
The See also:Staffordshire potters
who bought the rights of
the Bristol porcelain factory
from Champion established Plymouth, Bristol, Champion and a works at See also:Shelton, near
Stoke-upon-See also:Trent, in Staf-
fordshire, under the name of New See also: In preceding sections of this See also:article the development of the brightly painted tin-enamelled wares and the gaily decorated porcelains of various See also:European countries have been traced down to the end of the 18th century, because that date marks, quite distinctly, the period when the old handicraft of the potter was for various reasons displaced by organized manufacture. The disturbed economic See also:condition of Europe in the last quarter of the 18th century and the See also:Napoleonic See also:Wars of the See also:early 19th century proved disastrous to most of the pottery and porcelain works where artistic wares were made, and the disturbance of traditional methods was completed by the See also:superior mechanical perfection and cheapness of the English earthenware introduced by See also:Wedgwood and his contemporaries. The English pottery was neater, more perfectly finished and more durable than the painted tin-enamelled pottery of the See also:continent. It vied in finish with the expensive See also:continental porcelains, and for nearly half a century it carried all before it, not only in England, but throughout the See also:world. An intelligent observer, M. Faujas de See also:Saint Fond, See also:writing in the beginning of the 19th century, remarks of English pottery that " Its excellent workmanship, its solidity, the See also:advantage which it possesses of sustaining the See also:action of See also:fire, its See also:fine glaze impenetrable to acids, the beauty and convenience of its form, and the cheapness of its See also:price, have given rise to a See also:commerce so active and so universal, that in travelling from See also:Paris to See also:Petersburg, from See also:Amsterdam to the farthest parts of See also:Sweden, and from See also:Dunkirk to the extremity of the See also:south of See also:France one is served at every See also:inn upon English ware. See also:Spain, See also:Portugal and See also:Italy are supplied with it; and vessels are loaded with it for the See also:East Indies, the See also:West Indies, and the continent of America." 1 It was calculated that at this See also:time three-fourths of the pottery manufactured in England was sent abroad. Such a See also:state of things was not likely to continue, and in most of the European countries, after the See also:settlement of 1815, such of the older factories as had survived, or new factories specially created for the purpose, adopted English methods of manufacture. In many cases 1 Travels in England and See also:Scotland (Eng. trans.), vol. i. p. 97. See also:Swansea marks. MODERN] experienced Staffordshire potters were procured to See also:direct these works, and so far as See also:ordinary domestic pottery was concerned, the first half of the 19th century witnessed the See also:establishment in every See also:country of Europe and in the See also:United States of America of pottery works managed by Englishmen, where earthenwares were made after the English See also:fashion. We shall refer presently to the survival or revival of the older styles of pottery and porcelain, but the English See also:influence was undoubtedly See also:paramount, with one or two notable exceptions, down to 1850, or even later. England itself witnessed a notable development of its pottery manufacture, which became more and more aggregated in that See also:district of See also:North Staffordshire designated emphatically " The Potteries," where, in spite of later developments, from two-thirds to three-quarters of all the pottery and porcelain made in the British Isles is still produced. This concentration of the See also:industry in England has resulted in a See also:race of pottery workers not to be matched elsewhere in the world, and while it was the See also:supply of cheap See also:coal and coarse clay which first gave Staffordshire its pre-See also:eminence, that pre-eminence is now retained as much by the traditional skill of the workmen of the district as by the enterprise of its manufacturers. While we must admire, from the economic point of view, the methods of manufacture which have placed England in the first See also:rank as a pottery-producing country, inasmuch as they have brought within the reach of the humblest domestic utensils of high finish and great durability, it is impossible to say much for the See also:taste or art associated with them. Neatness, serviceableness and durability, English domestic wares undoubtedly possess in a degree unknown to any earlier type of pottery, but the general use of See also:transfer-See also:printing as the See also:principal method of decoration, and the See also:absence of any distinctive style of See also:ornament, must cause them to take a See also:low rank in comparison with the wares of past centuries, when mechanical perfection was impossible and See also:rich colour and truly decorative See also:painting were the See also:chief distinctions of the pottery of every country. The See also:London See also:International See also:Exhibition of 1851 is generally supposed to indicate the low-See also:water mark of art as applied to industry; it should rather be regarded as marking the period when many of the old handicrafts had been extinguished by the use of mechanical appliances and the growth of the factory See also:system, and when the delight of men in these current developments was so great that they were regarded as triumphs in themselves, when they were only " means to an end." Since that period the development of pottery and porcelain has followed two See also:main directions: (1) an See also:attempt on the part of manufacturers to produce the most artistic results possible with modern processes and methods, and (2) the interesting and valuable efforts of those individual potters in every country, with whom art was the first See also:consideration and commercial production was disregarded. Though the English pottery factories were of such paramount importance in the first half of the 19th century, it must be re-membered that some of the See also:oldest factories in Europe were still alive and active. The royal factories in Sevres, Meissen, See also:Berlin, See also:Vienna, St Petersburg and elsewhere, surviving the See also:wreck of the Napoleonic Wars, continued at the expense of their respective states, to produce porcelains which were the legitimate development of their work during the 18th century. Meissen and Berlin.—At Meissen, efforts were made to improve the technical See also:process in use, but, unfortunately, the old Meissen wares had already become valuable, and they were reproduced, marks included, until all initiative was destroyed, and the factory continued to live, mainly, on its old reputation. At Berlin, the See also:financial troubles of the Prussian See also:monarchy throughout the early years of the 19th century were severely See also:felt, so that a cheaper class of porcelain was manufactured. The only innovations that can be ascribed to the factory during this period, though highly esteemed at the time, form striking examples of the artistic decadence of the period. Such was the See also:lace-work decoration made by dipping lace in porcelain slip so that on firing the See also:thread burned away, leaving a porcelain facsimile; another was the production of slabs of porcelain modelled in such a way that on viewing the piece by transmitted See also:light it appeared like a picture painted en See also:grisaille.757 From the artistic point of view there is little to be said for the See also:majority of productions of the Berlin factory, but nowhere in the world has greater attention been paid to the technical and scientific problems of porcelain manufacture, and this establishment has rendered the greatest service in the development of the important chemical and See also:electrical See also:industries of See also:Germany by the splendid appliances it has invented for scientific use. Since 187o the works, removed to See also:Charlottenburg, have been conducted with very great enterprise. It was here that Seger perfected his soft porcelain based on the glazes and bodies of the best See also:Japanese porcelains, and here also he See also:developed the manufacture of See also:copper-red glazes in imitation of the old sang-de-bteuf and flambe glazes of the Chinese, at the same time establishing some of the scientific principles underlying their production. At Berlin, too, all the modern methods of decoration, whether in coloured glazes, raised enamels, pate sur p¢te, the elaborate paintings of flowers, birds or figures, or the use of crystalline glazes, have been followed with great success; but the factory has never yet given any See also:special impetus or new direction to the decorative See also:side of porcelain.
Vienna.—Few European factories were so little affected by the general trend of affairs as the royal factory at Vienna. We have already referred to the elaborate paintings and rich See also:gilding which became the distinguishing feature of its wares towards the end of the 18th century, and this style, once perfected, seems to have been continued with little See also:change. It has been stated by a renowned See also:German authority, that the Viennese porcelain was at its best between 1785 and 1815. During this period the See also:plan of painting copies of pictures on porcelain was developed to its utmost, and this, in See also:combination with the richest gilding, marks the See also:apotheosis of Viennese porcelain. The factory came to an end in 1864, but collectors should be warned that a See also:flood of cheap porcelains, decorated in modern Viennese workshops, and there-fore styled " Viennese porcelain," has during the last twenty years overwhelmed the English and See also:American markets.
Sevres.—The important part played by the Royal See also:French manufactory at Sevres has already been sketched. During the troublous years of the French Revolution the works practically came to a standstill, and under the See also:Directory it was a question whether this manufactory, along with certain other state establishments in France, should be closed. See also:Napoleon, however, decided that for the See also:glory of France and as a means of encouraging its porcelain industry, seriously threatened by the English potters, the establishment at Sevres should be conducted as a See also:national factory. By a splendid coincidence See also: In the hands of Brongniart the establishment at Sevres became at once a school of research and a centre of See also:practical accomplishment—the influence of which was felt throughout Europe. Its products were obviously inspired by the demands of successive French monarchs and their courts. It ministered to the grandiose ideas of Napoleon, who demanded pieces that were to speak of his victories, and after every See also:campaign a fresh table service or new See also:suite of vases was produced to commemorate the See also:emperor's successes. The most striking piece of this See also:kind was the See also:vase made to commemorate the See also:marriage of Napoleon and See also:Marie See also:Louise in 1810. It was designed by See also:Isabey and was modelled with figures in bas-See also:relief. The principal See also:group contains not less than 115 such figures, while the subsidiary group, representing the acclaiming populace, contains between 2000 and 3000 figures. This vase was three years in making, and is said to have cost something like £1250. Unfortunately this was not a solitary example of the productions of Sevres, for under every successive See also:government of the 19th century the factory has been called to produce enormous vases which are to be found in the rooms or corridors of every See also:palace and museum in France, and while these pieces represent wonderful technical skill, both in their manufacture and the decorations with which they are covered, very few of them possess either spontaneity or See also:charm. They are correct, frigid, cold, and compare most unfavourably from 758 the artistic point of view with the masterpieces of See also:oriental pottery. Everything was carried out on the See also:grand See also:scale, and once again the influence of Sevres became paramount in Europe, and its styles of painting and decoration were eagerly followed from 1830 to 1870 by all those European potters who were attempting to make anything beyond useful domestic wares. As an instance of its aims in the period between 1830 and 1850, large sums were spent in the production of great slabs of porcelain many feet in See also:area; on which were painted copies of some of the famous portraits and other pictorial masterpieces in the galleries of the Louvre. A number of these are preserved in the museum at Sevres, and must always excite admiration and even wonder at their technical accomplishment. The most noticeable invention of Sevres in the See also:middle part of the 19th century was the pdte sur Ste decoration in which porcelain See also:clays of various See also:colours are used as the artist's See also:medium. The See also:idea appears to have been adopted from an old Chinese vase by See also:Robert, the chief painter, and at the London International Exhibition of 1862 some small cups decorated in this method, by Gely, were first shown. The most successful work in this style was, however, that produced by M. See also:Solon, who worked at Sevres until 1870. In that See also:year he came to England and was employed at Minton's, where for about See also:thirty-five years he continued this method of work, one of the few artistic and beautiful styles of pottery decoration of the 19th century. As practised by M. Solon the pate sur pate decoration took the form of paintings of figure subjects or dainty ornamental designs in See also: Limoges was a small centre of porcelain production in the period between 1780 and 1850, but after the latter date it rapidly developed into a pottery centre second only in importance to that of the Potteries district in England. We can do no more than mention this fact, because, for the most part, the activities of Limoges have been devoted to the production of pottery commercially, rather than pottery as an art. The Franco-German See also:War proved a disaster for Sevres, and all work came to a standstill for a time. The existing manufactory, which was almost completed before the outbreak of the war, was opened by See also:Marshal See also:MacMahon in 1876, but for many years the work was continued under great discouragement. Between 1879 and 1889 attention was paid to the study and imitation of old Chinese methods, and this resulted in the See also:reproduction of many of those Chinese glazes which had hitherto been the despair of European potters. At the Paris Exhibition of 19oo the display made by Sevres was perhaps the most notable feature of the magnificent collection of See also:ceramics gathered there. The collection included many varieties of porcelain, both hard and soft See also:paste, decorated in all the current styles of the period; under-glaze painting, on-glaze painting, flambe glazes and crystalline glazes, but most beautiful of all were the magnificent See also:groups of " biscuit " figures designed as table garnitures by some of the best French sculptors of the time. English Progress.—The demand for elaborate specimens of painted porcelain was at its height throughout Europe between 1851 and 1880, and this demand was undoubtedly fostered by the See also:series of international exhibitions held during that period,[MODERN when every European pottery works of See also:note produced large and costly specimens of porcelain or earthenware, smothered with painting and gilding. Every famous manufactory produced something beyond the ordinary, but undoubtedly the first of European factories during this period was that of Messrs Minton at Stoke-upon-Trent. M. See also:Leon Arnoux, a descendant of the Arnoux's of See also:Apt, an old See also:family of French potters, was at this time the technical and artistic director of Messrs Minton's works, and he was the only pottery director during the 19th century who could in any sense be compared with M. Brongniart of Sevres. M. Arnoux combined in a remarkable degree artistic with technical skill, and under his management the works of Messrs Minton became the greatest centre of ceramic art in Europe. Skilful modellers, like Jeannest, See also:Carriere-Belleuse, and Protat, and pottery painters such as A. Boullemier, Moussill, E. Lessore and L. Solon were engaged at this factory and produced many of the most characteristic European decorations of the middle of the 19th century. To this period, too, we must refer another English invention, that of a special porcelain known as " Parian." This in its finest expression was a "biscuit" porcelain used for the production of statuettes and groups rivalling the finest 18th century " biscuit " figures of Sevres and Derby. It seems probable that this Parian was first made at the works of See also:Copeland and Garratt, at Stokeupon-Trent; but it was immediately adopted at Minton's, Wedgwood's, and at Worcester; and each of these firms used it in a distinctive way. Glazed Parian was also manufactured at the Belleek Porcelain Works in See also:Ireland (the only Irish porcelain works of any note), and later its manufacture was developed by the Worcester Royal Porcelain See also:Company, See also:Moore See also:Brothers of Longton, and other English manufacturers until it became an important See also:branch of the English porcelain made in the period under See also:review. Japanese Influence.—At the Paris Exhibition of 1867 the great collection of the applied arts of See also:Japan took Europe by See also:storm, and there was an immediate outbreak of adaptations of Japanese art in Europe once more; not as in the 18th century, when the old Japanese patterns were copied or frankly imitated, but a European-Japanese style arose, based on the methods and ideas of the great Japanese painters and draughtsmen, the workers in See also:metal, in See also:iron, in See also:lacquer and in See also:silk. In England the Worcester Royal Porcelain Company produced a series of elaborate and skilful pieces inspired from this source, which for perfect and See also:minute See also:execution must be ranked before all other European works of their kind. The most admirable result of this revived See also:interest in Japanese art was, however, developed at the Royal See also:Copenhagen works, the productions of which are not only famous all over the world, but have set a new style in porcelain decoration which is being followed at most of the continental factories. By the use of the pure See also:Swedish See also:felspar and See also:quartz and the finest china clays from Germany or Cornwall a material of excellent quality is prepared, and on this naturalistic paintings of birds, fishes, animals and water or See also:northern landscapes and figure subjects are painted in delicate under-glaze blues, greys and greens. The Royal Copenhagen works has also produced a profusion of skilfully modelled animals, birds and fishes, either in pure white, or delicately tinted after nature, with the same under-glaze colours. Not only have Berlin, Sevres and other European factories adopted the modern Copenhagen style of decoration, but the Japanese are now imitating these skilful productions which were originally inspired by their own early work. Slonewares.—Mention must be made of the revival of the manufacture of artistic stonewares by Doultons of See also:Lambeth, and Villeroy and Boch, the great German potters. Doultons, besides reviving the older forms of English stoneware, made some entirely new departures, and their pieces with designs etched in the clay are admirable examples of the right use of a refractory material. Villeroy and Boch reproduced the old Rhenish stone-wares, and many interesting new departures in addition, but mostly in German forms that have not commended the wares to other nations. MODERN] Artistic Results.—While the great potteries of Europe have been employed in improving their methods of manufacture and in consolidating their knowledge on the technical and scientific side, so that they are able to produce pottery more perfect in shape, with a higher degree of finish and greater certainty of result than was ever known before, it cannot be said that the artistic results have been commensurate with the labour expended. Fortunately, however, the success of these important See also:industrial concerns in stereotyping modern production has incited a considerable number of See also:clever men, either potters or artists, to become artist-potters and producers of individual wares, often recalling the works of the great See also:schools of bygone centuries. This See also:movement, which to-See also:day has its exponents in everyEuropean country as well as in the United States of America, originated in France between 184o and 1850, when the formation of the earliest ceramic museums and the new-See also:born interest in the old French See also:faience led to various attempts at pottery-making by the old methods of handwork and See also:rule of thumb. Avisseau of See also:Tours (1845), Pull of Paris (1855), and Barbizet (1859) began to make pieces in the style of See also:Palissy, and Ulysse of See also:Blois (1863) revived painted faience in imitation of that of See also:Nevers. Slowly a demand for painted pottery was created among collectors and amateurs, and in France and other countries artists began to dabble in the painting of pottery. In some cases the artist retained his freedom, painting pieces obtained from some pottery manufacturer, which he sold on his own account after they had been decorated and fired; or he became attached to a particular factory and his productions were sold by the potter; or the artist became an See also:amateur potter, and either worked alone or encouraged other artists to co-operate with him. It is impossible to do more than mention a few of the prominent men in each class, whose works were not only esteemed in their own day, but are also likely to be regarded always as among the distinguished productions of the 19th century. Emile Lessore and Chapelet were both painters who were attracted by the technique of the potter. For some time they bought specimens of pottery from a small manufacturer named Laurin at Bourg-la-Reine, and after a time they definitely forsook pictorial art for that of the potter. Lessore painted inunderglaze colours in a delicate sketchy style figure-subjects, mostly adapted from old engravings. He worked for a See also:short time at Sevres, and then, like so many other French pottery artists of this period, he came to Minton's in England, and finally entered into an engagement with the old See also:firm of See also:Josiah Wedgwood & Sons which continued almost to his death (186o-1876). On their fine cream-coloured earthenware he sketched many thousands of fanciful designs which had a great See also:vogue in the 'seventies and 'eighties of the last century. Chapelet pursued a very different course. His first innovation was a method known as " Barbotine " or slip-painting, in which coloured clays were used " impasto," often in considerable thickness, so that after the work had been fired and glazed it See also:bore some resemblance to an oil painting. For a few years this style of decoration became the rage all over Europe, but it See also:fell into contempt almost as rapidly as it had found favour, and is now only used for the decoration of See also:common wares. Ultimately, Chapelet gave up painting and applied himself to the See also:discovery of technical novelties. He was apparently the first European potter to produce flambe glazes after the manner of the Chinese, and a fine collection of these productions of his is preserved in the museum at Sevres. The greatest of all the French innovators was, however, See also:Theodore See also:Deck, who had been trained as a working potter and was led to forsake the management of an ordinary See also:tile and pottery business in Paris to experiment on his own account. He started a little workshop in the See also:Boulevard Montparnasse in Paris and rapidly gathered See also:round him a number of See also:young painters all eager to experiment in the magnificent colours which Deck with his passionate love of See also:Persian and other oriental pottery could See also:place at their disposal. Within a few years this venture was so successful that Deck was known all over the civilized world as a great potter, and his See also:original creations, painted by men like Ranvier, See also:Coffin, Ehrmann, Anker and other artists, were readily purchased759 by the lovers of ceramic art in every country. The See also:crown of his career came in 1887, when he was appointed director of the National Manufactory at Sevres, for he was the only practical potter who had ever occupied that position; but he died in 1890 before he had been able to impress his See also:personality on the work of Sevres, The same movement that was active in France found its exponents in other countries as well. In Italy and the south of France the last quarter of the loth century witnessed a revival of See also:Italian See also:majolica and of lustre decoration. Prominent in this direction were the productions of Cantegalli of See also:Florence and of the Massiers of Golfe-Juan near See also:Cannes; while in England William de See also:Morgan created an artistic sensation by his tiles and vases decorated with lustres, or with painted colours recalling those of the Persian and Syrian potters of the middle ages. This departure in England was, however, followed up by many manufacturers who were keenly alive to the possibilities of pottery colour, and Mr See also:Bernard Moore, of Longton, Maw & Company of Jackfield, and Minton's of Stoke-upon-Trent, produced much excellent work, in tiles and vases inspired from the same oriental See also:sources. Meantime,in America there had been growing up a manufacture of pottery after the approved methods, in Trenton, New See also:Jersey; East Liverpool, See also:Zanesville and See also:Cincinnati (See also:Ohio). To all these centres English workmen had been attracted, and earthenware after the current English styles was manufactured; but, as was the See also:case in Europe, individual efforts were made to produce artistic pottery. The first and best known of these artistic departures was that of the Rookwood Pottery at Cincinnati, and again it was an amateur, Mrs See also:Bellamy Storer, who founded an enterprise which has since produced some very original work. From 188o to 1889 the work was mainly carried on at the expense of this See also:lady, but since that date the enterprise has been self-supporting, and the Rookwood pottery has become known throughout the world. The latter half of the 19th century also witnessed the development of new branches of pottery manufacture for sanitary purposes—and it is not too much to say that much of the improved sanitation of modern dwellings and towns has been rendered possible by the special appliances invented by potters for these purposes. In this direction the English potters undoubtedly led the way, and not only have their methods been imitated abroad, but English manufacturers have also established large works in Germany, France and the United States of America. Varieties, too, of hard-fired pottery, comprising earthenwares, stonewares and porcelains, have been invented for use in the chemical and electrical industries. But these belong to the great modern branch of pottery manufacture, not to pottery art. In• the same way, the revived attention paid to the various forms of pottery for the interior and exterior of buildings belongs rather to the question of mural decoration than of pottery.
At the beginning of the loth century we find England and Germany the leading pottery manufacturing countries; Germany excelling in the amount of its output, and England in the fineness and finish of its productions. France, in addition to the National Manufactory at Sevres, as much as ever divorced from commerce, has its porcelain industry at Limoges and large manufactories of tiles and earthenware in many departments; while there are also a number of artist potters like Lachenal, Dalpayrat, Delaherche and Taxile Doat who make purely artistic pottery in hard-fired stonewares (gres) and porcelain, while the production of decorative stonewares for building purposes has been developed by such firms as See also:Bigot, See also:Boulanger and E. See also: In the United States of America there are large establishments for the manufacture of earthenware, bone china and tiles, all after the English fashion, while in addition there are a number of experimental kilns at work producing artistic pottery. The Rookwood factory has already been mentioned, but the wares produced at the Grueby factory and by Mrs Robineau and T. See also:Brouwer are also worthy of note. (See " See also:Report on American Art Pottery," pp. 922-935 of Special Reports of the U.S. See also:Census See also:Office, Manufactures, pt. iii., 1905.) Technical Pottery Works.—It is only possible to give a selection of the best of the modern See also:standard works dealing with the technical side of pottery production. Brongniart, Traite See also:des arts cerarhiques (3rd ed., Paris, 1877), with notes and additions by Salvetat; E. Bourry, Traite des industries ceramiques (Paris, 1897) ; Theodore Deck, La Faience (Paris, 1887) ; A. See also:Granger, La Ceramique industrielle (Paris, 19(35) ; E. S. Auscher, La Ceramique cuisant a haute temperature (Paris, 1899); Technologie de Ia ceramique (Paris, 1901); See also:Les Industries ceramiques (Paris, 1901); Seger, Gesammelte Schriften (Berlin, 1896; Eng. trans., See also:Easton, Pa., U.S.A., 1902); See also:Langenbeck, The See also:Chemistry of Pottery (Easton, Pa., U.S.A., 1895); William See also:Burton, Porcelain (London, 1906). (W. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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