THE See also:

• WORKS

A stranger from Elea plays an important See also:

• PART

Similarly, in the See also:

• DIALOGUE

Protagoras. Protagoras contends that virtue is taught by himself and others more or less successfully, and is not one but many. Socrates disputes the possibility of teaching virtue (since all men equally profess it, and even statesmen fail to give it to their sons), but affirms that, if it can be taught, virtue is not many, but one. The discussion, as in the former dialogues, ends inconclusively. But in the course of it Plato vividly sets forth the natural opposition between the empiric and scientific points of view, between a conventional and an intellectual See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

And it is true that a principle of utility is herel opposed to conventional sentiment. But this opposition is intended to prepare the way for the wider and deeper contrast between an arbitrary and a scientific standard, or between impressions and conceptions or ideas. And when Plato (in the Gorgias and Philebus) endeavours to define the See also:

• ART

398 A). He brings the rhapsode Io to admit this, and to conclude that he is the inspired See also:

• MEDIUM

r. Meno begins in gaiety of See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

Plato implies that Socrates had thought more deeply on the nature of piety than his accusers had, and also that his piety was of a higher See also:

• MOOD

" It pleases them." Again we are found to be reasoning in a circle. " Thus far has Socrates proceeded in placing See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

But when we expect him to go on and show that the true service of the gods is the service of the spirit and co-operation with them in all things true and good, he stops See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

And he selects those aspects of it which there is See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

b. Here he turns to Meletus. " If I corrupt the youth, who does them good?" Mel. " The laws, the See also:

• JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

He re-turns to the general long-standing See also:

• DEFAMATION (from the classical Lat. diffamare, to spread abroad an evil report—the English form in de is taken from the Late Lat. defamare)

I-Ie has no disciples. Any one, bad or good, may come and hear him, and the talk which is his life-work is not unamusing. But why are no witnesses brought to substantiate this charge? There are See also:

• ELDER (0. Eng. ellarn; Ger. Holunder; Fr. sureau)
• ELDER (Gr. 1rpev(3iTepos)

One convicted on a See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

To those who have condemned him he speaks in a prophetic tone. " For the See also:

• SAKE

Wherefore Socrates will not be angry with his condemners, who have done him no harm, although they meant him anything but good. He will only ask of them to do to the sons of Socrates as Socrates has done to them." Is the love of truth consistent with civic duties? Is the philosopher a good citizen? are questions which are sure to arise where the truth involves practical improvement. C,. to. In the Apology Socrates appears as an intrepid reformer; the Crito gives an impressive picture of him as a loyal and See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

Gorg. 521; Rep. vi. 496. Apology. Crito then reveals his See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

Even at the last you accepted death rather than exile. If you now break your See also:

• COVENANT
• COVENANT (an O. Fr. form, later convenant, from convenir, to agree, Lat. convenire)

They may be inventions, but they have nothing " mythical " about them, any more than the charge of Socrates to his friends, that they would best fulfil his wishes by attending to their own lives. The narrative, to be appreciated, must be read in full. But a short abstract of the argument may be given here. 1. Death is merely the separation of soul and See also:

• BODY

a. An old tradition tells of many successive births, the soul departing to Hades and returning again, so that the living are See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

And we cannot have seen it at the moment of birth, for at what other moment can we have forgotten it? Therefore, if ideals be not vain, our souls must have existed before birth, and, according to the doctrine of opposites above stated, will have continued existence after death. b. To See also:

• CHARM (through the Fr. from the Lat. carmen, a song)

That which true philosophy has purified alone rises ultimately to the gods. The lesson is impressively applied. 2. A pause ensues; and Simmias and Cebes are invited to See also:

• EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

Or even supposing her to have many lives, does even this hypothesis exempt her from ultimate decay? Socrates warns his friends against losing faith in inquiry. Theories, like men, are disappointing; yet we should be neither misanthropists nor misologists. Then he answers his two friends. a—i. The soul is acknowledged to be See also:

• PRIOR (from Lat. prior—former, and hence superior, through O. Fr. priour)
• PRIOR, MATTHEW (1664-1721)

609. iii. All soul is equally soul, but all harmony is not equally harmonious. iv. If the soul were the harmony of the body they would be agreed: but, as has been already shown, they are perpetually quarrelling. v. The soul is not conditioned by the bodily elements, but has the power of controlling them. b. Cebes has raised the wide question whether the soul is independent of See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

But he found Anaxagoras forsaking his own first principle and jumbling causes with conditions. (" The cause why Socrates sits here is not a certain disposition of See also:

• JOINTS

We who dwell about the Mediterranean See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

The universal has assumed the form of the ideal, which is supposed, as elsewhere in Plato, to include mathematical as well as moral notions. The only See also:

• FUNCTION

The Symposium admits both of comparison and of contrast with the Phaedo. Both dialogues are mystical, both are Symposium, spiritual, but the spirituality in either is of a different order. That is here immanent which was there transcendent; the beautiful takes the place of the good. The world is not now to be annihilated, but rather transfigured, until particular objects are lost in universal light. Instead of flying from the region of growth and decay, the mind, through inter-course with beauty, is now the active cause of See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

See also:

• PAUSANIAS

Between gods and mortals is the world of mediating spirits (TO Satµoviov). And Love is a great spirit, child of Resource (the son of Prudence) and Poverty the See also:

• BEGGAR

In individual lives there is a See also:

• FLUX (Lat. fluxus, a flowing; this being also the meaning of the English term in medicine, &c.)

He is crowning Agathon, when, on perceiving Socrates, he declares that he will See also:

• CROWN

And he makes it abundantly See also:

• MANIFEST (Lat. manifestus, clear, open to view)

The impassioned contemplation of the beautiful is again imagined as the beginning of philosophy. But the " limitless Phaedrus. ocean of beauty " is replaced by a world of supra- mundane forms, beheld by unembodied souls, and remembered here on earth through enthusiasm, proceeding by dialectic from multiform impressions to one rational conception, and distinguishing the " lines and See also:

• VEINS

Readers of his latest works are often reminded of the See also:

• MOCK

But he becomes alarmed at his own unwonted eloquence, and is about to remove, when the " divine token " warns him that he must first recite a " palinode " in praise of love. For no divine power can be the cause of evil. 2. Love is madness; but there is a noble madness, as is shown by soothsayers (called ua.vres from uatvouau). And of the higher madness there are four kinds. To explain this it is necessary to understand psychology. The soul is self-existent and self-moving, and therefore eternal. And her form is like a pair of winged steeds with their charioteer. In divine souls both steeds are good, but in human souls one of them is bad. Now before entering the body the soul lost her wings, which in her unembodied state were nourished by beauty, wisdom, goodness, and all that is divine. For at the festival of souls, in which they visit the heaven that is above the heavens, she unruly steed caused the charioteer to see imperfectly. So the soul See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

And, according to the See also:

• COMPARATIVE

3. From his " palinode " Socrates returns to Lysias, who is advised to leave speech-writing for philosophy. a. Phaedrus remarks that the speech-writer is despised by the politician. Socrates replies that speech-writing and politics are one concern. The real difference is between those who base their teaching on philosophy and those who are content with rules of art. For example, if the first speech of Socrates is compared with that of Lysias, the one is found to distinguish and define, the other not; the one observes order in discourse, the other " begins where he should end," and his utterance is like a disordered See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

Whether the soul be one or many, complex or multiform, and if multiform what are its parts and kinds, are questions which the teacher must have already solved. And he must likewise have classified all arguments and know them in their various applicability to See also:

• DIVERS

It has been thought strange that it should be found so early as in the Phaedrus. But does not this remark imply an unwarrantable assumption, viz. that Plato's idealism took its departure from the being of Parmenides ? Is it not rather the fact that his own theory was formulated before the Megarian ascendancy led him to examine the Eleatic doctrine, and that it was by a tendency from the first inherent in Platonism that that doctrine was modified in his final teaching? (2) The outlines of method which are thrown out at See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

In executing a great task like the See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

Three persons maintain different views respecting the nature and origin of language. See also:

• HERMOGENES

And the facts indicate an element of meaningless convention. Nor was the original word-maker consistently Heraclitean. For some important words point not to See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

The beautiful or noble when realized in action becomes the just. And to the question, What is just? are closely allied those other questions of Socrates—What is a state? What is it to be a statesman? In the Gorgias Plato asserts the absolute supremacy of justice through the dramatic portraiture of Socrates in his opposition to the world; in the Republic he strives at greater length to define the nature of justice through the imaginary creation of an ideal community. In the Gorgias the Platonic Socrates appears in direct antagonism with the Athenian world. The shadow of his fate is impending. Chaerephon (who is still alive) understands Qorglas. him, but to the other interlocutors, Gorgias, Polus, Callicles, he appears perversely paradoxical.sYet he effectively dominates them all. And to the reader of the dialogue this image of " Socrates contra mundum " is hardly less impressive than that other image of Socrates confronting death. i. Gorgias asserts that rhetoric is an art concerned with justice, and that persuasion is the secret of power. a. Socrates, after suggesting some ironical doubts, declares his opinion that rhetoric is no art, but a knack of pleasing, or in other words " the counterfeit of a subsection of statesmanship." This oracular definition rouses the interest of Gorgias, and Socrates proceeds with the following " generalization and division ": Management of I soul.

Body. I f 1 Real. Pretended. Real. Pretended. norms 1, I I I T ~~ r r a a n Sophistic. Rhetoric. Gymnastic. See also:

• MEDICINE

Flattery influences men through pleasure without knowledge. And the rhetor is a kind of confectioner, who can with difficulty be distinguished from the sophist. b. Rhetoric, then, is not an art. And persuasion is not the secret of power. Here Socrates maintains against Polus the three paradoxes: The tyrant does what he chooses but not what he wishes; It is less evil to suffer wrong than to do wrong; It is better for the wrongdoer to be punished than to escape See also:

• PUNISHMENT (from Lat. punire, to punish, from poena, punishment, Gr. 7rocvil)

And natural See also:

• NOBILITY

And Callicles is invited to leave the life which relies on rhetoric and to follow Socrates in practising the life of philosophic virtue. The value of justice has been shown. But what is justice ? Is the life upheld by Socrates sufficiently definite for practical Republic. guidance? The views of Callicles have been over-borne; but have they been thoroughly examined? Socrates claims to be the only politician. But how can that deserve the name of policy which results in doing nothing? These and cognate questions may well have haunted Plato when he planned the Republic, the greatest of his works. For that which lay deepest in him was not mere speculative interest or poetic fervour, but the practical enthusiasm of a reformer. The example of Socrates had fired him with an ideal of wisdom, courage, temperance and righteousness, which under various guises, both abstract and concrete, has appeared and reappeared in the preceding dialogues. But the more vividly he conceived of this ideal life, the more keenly he felt its See also:

• ISOLATION

Hence it became necessary to imagine a form of society in which the ideal man might find himself at home, a state to which the philosopher might stand in harmonious relationship, no longer as an See also:

• ALIEN (Lat. alienus)

(2) Bks. ii.. 1 See especially Rep. v. 472 ; Legg. v. 746.iii., iv. contain the outlines of the perfect state, including the education of the " guardians," and leading up to the definition of justice (a) in the state, and (b) in the individual. (3) Bks. v., vi., vii. (which to some critics present the See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

In speculating about the composition of the Republic (as is the See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

He works less deductively and more from masses of generalized experience than Platonists have been ready to admit. And in the Republic he is as much engaged with the criticism of an actual as with the See also:

• PROJECTION

i. The question debated by See also:

• PROCLUS, or PROCULUS (A.D. 410-485)

462 C). This is also to be referred, however, to Plato's general tendency to See also:

• STRAIN (through O. Fr. straindre, estraindre, mod. i treindre, from Lat. stringere, to draw tight, related to stress, stretch, string, &c.)

Plato, if man ever did so, had felt the See also:

• SIREN

2 See, for example, the See also:

• ADMISSION

d. A yet different phase of idealism presents itself in bk. ix. (sub fin.), in the mention of a " pattern " of the perfect state laid up in heaven which the philosopher is to make his rule of life. What is said above concerning Plato's mode of composition has some bearing on these inconsistencies of expression. And that bks. vi., vii., as being the most important, were finished last is a not untenable hypothesis. But that Plato, in preparing the way for what he had in contemplation, should content himself with provisional expressions which he had himself outgrown, or that in a casual illustration (as in bk. x.) he should go back to a crude or even childish form of his own theory, is equally conceivable and in accordance with his manner elsewhere. Socrates in the Parmenides confessedly wavers on this very point. And there are " ideas " of the four elements in the Timaeus. VI. Euthydemus, Parmenides, Theaetetus, Sophist, Statesman, Philebus (the dialectical dialogues).—Even in the most advanced See also:

• METAPHYSICS
• METAPHYSICS, or METAPHYSIC (from Gr. /sera, after, d v med, things of nature, lots, i.e. the natural universe)

It is not necessary to assume that all of these are later than the Republic. The position of the Euthydemus and Parmenides in the order of composition is very uncertain. The Theaetetus has points of See also:

• AFFINITY (Lat. affinitas, relationship by marriage, from offinis, bordering on, related to; finis, border, boundary)
• AFFINITY, CHEMICAL

But it is not less true that the metaphysical aspirations from . which Socrates had seemed to recall men's thoughts had been reawakened in consequence of the impulse which Socrates himself had given. From asking, Is virtue one? Can virtue be taught? Plato passes on to ask, What is unity? What are knowledge and being? From criticizing imperfect modes of teaching virtue, he has begun to speculate about the right and wrong uses of the See also:

• INTELLECT (Lat. intellectus, from intelligere, to understand)

He therefore enters into conversation, as it were, with the great minds of former times, and in the spirit of Socrates compels each of them to yield up his secret, and to acknowledge a supple-mental truth. To this effort he may very probably have been stimulated by the dialectical activity of his Socratic friends at See also:

• MEGARA

And the Zenonian method had more pretension to exactness than the Socratic. But it remained barren, because contented to repeat its own first essays in the destructive analysis of experience, without rising to the 'Cf. Meno.examination of its own first principles. For this higher criticism, of which he himself also stood in need, Plato looks up from the disciples to the See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

(As the paradoxical doubts in the Protagoras do not shake the faith of Socrates in the existence of good, so neither does Plato here intend for a moment to derogate from the belief in the existence of the One and the True.) Parmenides advises Socrates to See also:

• ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is ar, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. armus, shoulder, and the plural word arma, weapons, Gr. apphs, joint, and the reduplicated apapilKSV, to join)

Before this can be attempted, how-ever, another set of difficulties have to be met, and another set of philosophers examined. For the current See also:

• SCEPTICISM (o-Kesrroµai, I consider, reflect, hesitate, doubt)

3 Cf. the younger Socrates of the Politicus. It would be See also:

• PRECARIOUS

Thus in planning the Sophistes he linked it to the Theaetetus (which had been written without any such intention), and projected a whole tetralogy of dialectical dialogues, Theaetetus, Sophistes, Politicus, Philosophus, of which the last piece seems never to have been written. After an See also:

• INTERVAL

Plato seems to have regarded this method as an See also:

• IMPLEMENT (Lat. implementum, a filling up, from implere, to fill)

And of the true See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

And his main point is that true negation is correlative to true affirmation, much as he has said in the Phaedrus that the dialectician separates kinds according to the " lines and veins of nature." The Sophistes is a standing protest against the error of marring the finely-graduated lineaments of truth, and so destroying the vitality of thought. The idealists whom the Eleatic stranger treats so gently have been identified with the Megarians. But may not Plato be reflecting on a Megarian influence operating within the Academy? Here, as partly already in the Parmenides and Theaetetus, the ideas assume the nature of categories, and being is the sum of positive attributes, while negation, as the shadow of affirmation, is likewise finally comprehended in the totality of being. The remark made incidentally, but with intense emphasis, that the universe lives and moves " according to God," is an indication of the religious tone which reappears increasingly in the Politicus, Philebus, Timaeus and Laws. In passing on to consider the statesman, true and false, the Eleatic stranger does not forget the lesson which has just been learned. While continuing his method of dichotomies, he is careful to look on both sides of each alternative, and he no longer insists on dividing between this and not-this when another mode of classification is more natural. A rule not hitherto applied is now brought forward, the rule of proportion or right measure (Tb /ATpto ), as distinguished from arbitrary limitations. Nor is formal logical treatment any longer felt to be adequate to the subject in hand, but an elaborate myth is introduced. On the ethicopolitical side also a change has come over Plato. As he has stripped his ideas of transcendental imagery, so in reconsidering his philosopher-king he turns away from the smiling optimism of the Republic and looks for a scientific statesmanship that shall lay a strong grasp upon the actual world. He also feels more bitterly towards the demagogues and other rulers of Hellas.

The author of the Politicus must have had some great quarrel with mankind. But so far as they will receive it he is still See also:

• INTENT (from Lat. intend ere, to stretch out, extend, particularly in the phrase intendere animum, to turn one's mind to, purpose)

3. Therefore in our present definition the term " See also:

• SUPERINTENDENT

These are the actual rulers of mankind, more sophistical and juggling than the sophist himself. And they too must be separated from the true king. 5. The familiar tripartite distinction of See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

Yet if law is disregarded by rulers who are unscientific and warped by self-interest, this leads to far worse evils. For the laws are based on some experience and wisdom. Hence, in the continued absence of the true ruler, the best course, though only second best, is the strict observance of law. And he who so rules in humble See also:

• IMITATION (Lat. imitatio, from intitari, to imitate)

4. Law-breaking democracy. 5. Law-defying oligarchy. 6. Tyranny. 8. It remains to See also:

• SEPARATE

His converse with Parmenides ended in his assertion of an element of difference pervading all things—in other words, of an indeterminate element underlying all determinations. This brings him again into relation with the Pythagoreans, who had similarly asserted the combination of finite and See also:

• INFINITE (from Lat. in, not, finis, end or limit; cf. findere, to deave)

" I will remind you," Socrates, " of what has been omitted," says Protarchus at the conclusion of this dialogue. The last (presumably) of Plato's metaphysical writings thus fitly ends with a confession of incompleteness. But if, as See also:

• RENAN, ERNEST (1823-1892)

272 C, D. 2 See Jowett, Introd. to the Timaeus. his thoughts. In the same passage (272 C) there occurs the first clear anticipation of an interrogatio naturae. The impulse in this new direction, if not originated, was manifestly reinforced, through closer intercourse with the Pythagorean school. And the choice of Timaeus the Pythagorean as chief speaker is an See also:

• ACKNOWLEDGMENT (from the old acknow, a compound of on- and know, to know by the senses, which passed through the forms oknow, aknow and acknow; acknowledge is formed on analogy of " knowledge ")

In doing so he acknowledges an imperfect truth in theories which his dialectic had previously set aside. In examining the earlier philosophers he has already transgressed the limits prescribed by Socrates, and the effort to connect ideas has made him more and more conscious of the See also:

• GAP

4. The phenomena of vision and hearing are included among the works of reason, because the final cause of these higher senses is to give men perception of number, through contemplation of the See also:

• MEASURES

In criticizing the illusory notion of " up and down," Plato, apparently for the first time, broaches the conception of See also:

• ANTIPODES (Gr. avri, opposed to, and 7r6 es, feet)

Hence in the Timaeus not the body only is made by the inferior gods, but they also create the lower and mortal parts of the human soul: the principle of anger which is planted in the See also:

• BREAST (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. the Ger. Brust, possibly connected with an O. Sax. brustian, to bud)

d. I. The dependence of mental disease on bodily conditions is more fully recognized in the Timaeus than elsewhere in Plato (contrast the Charmides, for example). 2. He has also changed his mind about the treatment of disease, and shows more respect for regimen and See also:

• DIET

Timaeus begins by assuming (I) that the universe being corporeal is caused and had a beginning, and (2) that its mysterious author made it after an See also:

• EVERLASTING, or IMMORTELLE

But it is difficult to acquit him of intentional obscurity in speaking of the creation of the Earth. It is clear, though Plato does not say so, that she is meant to have been created together with the Heaven and together with Time, and so before the other " gods within the heaven," i.e. the sun and his life,1 upon a different task. He was resolved to leave behind him, if he could so far overcome the infirmities of See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

" The use of the lot, the See also:

• SCRUTINY (Fr. scrutin, Late Lat. scrulinium, from scrutari, to search or examine thoroughly)

770 A. 2 ffV . . -y'ipws E7rLKparwJleP ')'e ro ro rov, Legg. vi. 752 A. 3 Published by See also:

• PHILIPPUS, MARCUS JULIUS

887 seq. 897 seq., 904 seq. 5 Legg. xii. 968 E. (See also:

• ATH, or AATII

The Greater Hippias and the Clitophon are also admitted to have some plausibility. The Second-Alcibiades (on Prayer), the See also:

• HIPPARCHUS (fl. 146-126 B.c.)