See also:

• ROMANCE

It is obvious that there was no break of continuity in the vulgar language, for if in the later imperial ages a verb had been formed from nix, nivis, it must have been nivare, or niviare (Fr. neiger). Here especially the words of See also:

• HORACE [QuINTus HORATIUS FLACCUS] (65-8 B.C.)

Neither active intercourse, nor the dislocations of tribes and populations brought about by the exigencies of military or colonizing enterprise, ever effected a See also:

• COMPLETE

Contrary to Latin use, these two dialects, the most important in ancient Italy, have f between vowels from an early bh, dh, as against Latin b, d; and Umbrian, Paelignan, &c., e, o, from an early ei, ou, as against Latin i, u. Thus crefrat (in the glosses), as against Latin cribrat, is both by right of its vowel and consonant, an Umbrian form. And with this we must compare Ital. bifolco beside Lat. bubulcus; Ital. taffiari, " to feast," beside tabulari; lafano, " horsefly," beside Lat. tabanus; bufalo, beside Lat. bubalus. Further, See also:

• NEAP

The so-called Endlichers glossary of the 5th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

Fr. raie, Mod. Fr. rayon, " furrow," Gallic *ricer (cf. Cymr. rhych). A further See also:

• GROUP

See also:

• PLINY, THE ELDER
• PLINY, THE YOUNGER

Ir. See also:

• BARR

But the process of elimination took place more rapidly and thoroughly in this case, so that the number of Iberian or See also:

• CELTIC

See also:

• ASCOLI
• ASCOLI, GRAZIADIO ISAIA (1829–1907)

On the other hand, the ancient u became i in Cymric, to which ii must be regarded as an intermediary step, that may there-fore have existed in Gallic. But in the first place we must observe that Greek writers always render the Gallic u by ov, never by v; that the Romans too write u, never y; and further, that over a large part of the area u came in comparatively recently. Secondly, in Gallic See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

38 if. 2 G. I. Ascoli, Una Lettera glottologica (188o) ; Archivio glottologico ilaliano, x. 26o; Sprachwissenschaftliche Briefe (1887; cf. H. Schuchardt, Zeitschrift fur rom. Phil. iv. 140 and elsewhere); and Meyer-Liibke, loc. cit. 205 if.say that Gallic itself affords no evidence for this See also:

• ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF

These characteristics (in See also:

• HISTORICAL

But in the inscriptions of the Empire o for au is very rare, save in proper names, and the Romance languages have partly preserved the au to this day with little or no change (cf. Rum. auzi, Prov. auzir, Port. ouvir from audire), or only changed it to o at a later stage (cf. Fr. See also:

• CHOSE (Fr. for " thing ")

But the older qualitative variations were maintained so that even now sitis and vitis, or tgctum and *tuns did not contain the same vowel=sound, the former having a close, the latter an open, vowel. (Cf. Ital. sete, See also:

• VICE

The genitive was the first case to disappear. In general its functions were usurped by the preposition de. But for the possessive sense the dative was adopted, cf. H1c REQUIESCUNT MEMBRA AD DUOS FRATRES, in an inscription from Gaul. The See also:

• ACCUSATIVE (Lat. accusativus, sc. casus, a translation of the Gr. aletartKI vrrwves, the case concerned with cause and effect, from atria, a cause)

Fr. cil, Mod. Fr. celui) or eccuille (Ital. quegli, Sp. aquel) ; ecceiste (Fr. ce- (t) ) ; eccuiste (Ital. questo, Sp. aqueste). In the verb-system, a characteristic change is the disappearance of the future and passive forms, the explanation of the phenomenon in both cases being psychological rather than formal. Popular language is not See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

It is natural that the infinitives esse, velle, posse, being exceptional, should have been brought into line with all the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

And as the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

It is in the vocabulary that it is most difficult to define the relations of the common and the literary language. So much of the Latin vocabulary as appears over the whole Romance area comes of course from the everyday language which was used from the mouth of the See also:

• EBRO (anc. Iberus or Hiberus)

There are altogether nine—Rumanian, Dalmatian, Sardinian, Italian, Raeto-Romanic, French, Provencal, Spanish and Portuguese. Of these nine languages, Dalmatian is now See also:

• EXTINCT

There are other signs of their antiquity. In Central Sardinian c before e, i, and 1 Cf. G. Grober, Archiv. f. lat. Lexicographie, i. 204 if. 2 Cf. M. G. See also:

• BARTOLI, DANIELLO (16o8-1685)

The preservation of the tenues between vowels as breathed fortes is peculiar to Rumano-Dalmatian, but as north Sardinian used breathed lenes in their place, while the dialect of See also:

• NUORO

On the given basis the various languages carried on their various developments, influenced partly by contiguity of other idioms, partly by causes unknown to us. Among neighbouring idioms, Greek had by right of its degree of civilization and its political power great influence in giving Rumanian and South Italian a similar direction, and that at a time when every trace of a See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

Diphthongs such as they appear also in Istrian and Abruzzian, so that we must presuppose some sort of connexion. It may be that Sardinian took another course of development because (A.D. 458) the island was See also:

• RENT

The East-Rumanian group (coupled with Sardinia) finds its counterpart in the great group based upon the Latinity of Gaul, the Iberian peninsula, and north Italy. This group contains a considerable number of fundamental peculiarities in phonology, morphology and vocabulary which prima facie See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

The See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

The influence of the Goths or Suevi and Vandals on the vocabulary is inconsiderable, and when we trace it it is not easy to explain ; e.g. Galician laverca, " See also:

• LARK (0. Eng. ldwerce, Ger. Lerche, Dan. Laerke, Dutch Leeuwerik)

It changes voiced stops first to fricatives, then to See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

Devedor has a plosive d, a devedor has a fricative; istas has a breathed -s, but istas nos ceus, " thou art in See also:

• HEAVEN (0. Eng. hefen, heofon, heofone; this word appears in O.S. hevan; the High. Ger. word appears in Ger. Himmel, Dutch hemel; there does not seem to be any connexion between the two words, and the ultimate derivation of the word is unknown; the sugges

N. Fr. aime from amat, as against S. Fr. ama.; or in one case armeure (Mod. Fr. armure), in the other armadura, from armatura. Parallel to the preservation of -s on the one hand, and the close following of the old flexions on the other, we find the type membra preserved at first, though not spreading, whereas the tempora-type is abandoned. In the verb the variety in Latin perfect forms is still fairly well preserved, though there is a distinct See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

But its further development was checked by the See also:

• LOMBARDS, or LANGOBARDI

One other element must not be overlooked on which we have touched more than once in the above See also:

• SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. oxE&os, sudden, off-hand, axeb6v, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source)

Goths as well as Lombards have left a trail as noticeable in the language as elsewhere. Thus we find in several instances some uncertainty as between b and p as an initial sound in Italian words borrowed from Germanic, e.g. banca and panca, balla and See also:

• PALLA, PALA

But on the other hand in the 11th century the great See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

" See also:

• TOWEL

Fr. jalne (Mod. Fr. jaune), derived from that word, &c. But it seems that in one of the prehistoric periods the Tuscan vocabulary was strongly affected by that of the Gallo-Romanic. Whereas in the Iberian peninsula, in Sardinia, in south Italy, Rumania and Rhaetia See also:

• DIES, CHRISTOPH ALBERT (1755-1822)

Fr. saluer. On the whole, Portuguese seems to possess more of these Gallicisms than Spanish, history supplying a simple explanation. Italy too yielded its contributions, especially in the 15th and 16th centuries, many military terms (See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

(W.