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GALLS

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GALLS . In animals galls occur mostly on or under the skin of living mammals and birds, and are produced by Acaridea, and by dipterous See also:

insects of the genus Oestrus. Signor Moriggia 4 has described and figured a horny excrescence, nearly 8 in. in length, from the back of the human See also:hand, which was caused by See also:Acarus domesticus. What are commonly known as galls are See also:vegetable excrescences, and, according to the See also:definition of Lacaze-Duthiers, comprise " all abnormal vegetable productions See also:developed on See also:plants by the See also:action of animals, more particularly by insects, whatever may be their See also:form, bulk or situation." For the larvae of their makers the galls provide shelter and sustenance. The exciting cause of the See also:hypertrophy, in the See also:case of the typical galls, appears to be a See also:minute quantity of some irritating fluid, or See also:virus, secreted by the See also:female See also:insect, and deposited with her See also:egg in the puncture made by her ovipositor in the cortical or foliaceous parts of plants. This virus causes the rapid enlargement and subdivision of the cells affected by it, so as to form the tissues of the See also:gall. See also:Oval or larval irritation also, without doubt, plays an important See also:part in the formation of many galls. Though, as Lacaze-Duthiers remarks, a certain relation is necessary between the " stimulus " and the " supporter of the stimulus," as evidenced by the See also:limitation in the See also:majority of cases of each See also:species of gall-insect to some one vegetable structure, still it must be the quality of the irritant not strictly obsolete, is now seldom used; the formation is See also:felt to be somewhat uncouth, so that the use of the word in the plural in commonly evaded " (New Eng. Dict. s.v. " Gallows "). 2 In Med. See also:Lat.

" gallows " was translated by furia and patibulum, both words applied in classical Latin to a See also:

fork shaped See also:instrument of See also:punishment fastened on the See also:neck of slaves and criminals. Furia, in feudal See also:law, was the right granted to tenants having See also:major See also:jurisdiction to erect a gallows within the limits of their See also:fief. 3 Cf. See also:Wace, See also:Roman de Rou, iii. 8349: " Et it a le gibet saisi Qui a son destre braz pendi." 4 Quoted in Zoological See also:Record, iv. (1867), p. 192. of the tissues, rather than the specific peculiarities or the part of the plant affected, that principally determines the nature of the gall. Thus the characteristics of the See also:currant-gall of Spathegaster baccarum, L., which occurs alike on the leaves and on the See also:flower-stalks of the See also:oak, are obviously due to the See also:act of oviposition, and not to the functions of the parts producing it; the See also:bright red galls of the saw-See also:fly Nematus gallicola are found on four different species of See also:willow, Salix fragilis, S. See also:alba, S. caprea and S. cinerea; 1 and the galls of a Cynipid, Biorhiza See also:aptera, usually developed on the rootlets of the oak, have been procured also from the deodar.2 Often the gall bears no visible resemblance to the structures out of which it is developed; commonly, however, outside the larval chamber, or gall proper, and giving to the gall its distinctive form, are to be detected certain more or less modified See also:special See also:organs of the plant. The gall of Cecidomyia strobilina, formed from willow-buds, is mainly a rosette of leaves the stalks of which have had their growth arrested. The small, smooth, See also:seed-shaped gall of the See also:American Cynips seminal or, See also:Harris, according to W. F.

Bassett,' is the petiole, and its terminal tuft of woolly hairs the enormously developed pubescence of the See also:

young oak-See also:leaf. The See also:moss-like covering of the "bedeguars" of the See also:wild See also:rose, the galls of a Cynfpid, Rhodites rosae, represents leaves which have been developed with scarcely any parenchyma between their fibro-vascular bundles; and the " See also:artichoke-galls " or " oak-strobile," produced by Aphilothrix gemmae, L., which insect arrests the development of the See also:acorn, consists of a cupule to which more or less modified leaf-scales are attached, with a peduncular, oviform, inner gall.' E. See also:Newman held the view that many oak-galls are pseudobalani or false acorns: " to produce an acorn has been the intention of the oak, but the gall-fly has frustrated the See also:attempt." Their formation from buds which normally would have yielded leaves and shoots is explained by Parfitt as the outcome of an effort at fructification induced by oviposition, such as has been found to result in several plants from injury by insect-agency or otherwise.' Galls vary remarkably in See also:size and shape according to the species of their makers. The polythalamous gall of Aphilothrix radicis, found on the roots of old oak-trees, may attain the size of a See also:man's fist; the galls of another Cynipid, A ndricus occultus, Tschek,' which occurs on the male See also:flowers of Quercus sessiliflora, is 2 millimetres, or barely a See also:line, in length. Many galls are brightly coloured, as, for instance, the oak-leaf hairy galls of Spathegaster tricolor, which are of a See also:crimson See also:hue, more or less diffused according to exposure to See also:light. The variety of forms of galls is very See also:great. Some are like urns or cups, others lenticular. The " knoppern " galls of Cynips polycera, Gir., are cones having the broad, slightly See also:convex upper See also:surface surrounded with a toothed See also:ridge. Of the Ceylonese galls, " some are as symmetrical as a composite flower when in bud, others smooth and spherical like a See also:berry; some protected by See also:long spines, others dothed with yellow See also:wool formed of long cellular hairs, others with regularly tufted hairs." 7 The characters of galls are See also:constant, and as a See also:rule exceedingly diagnostic, even when, as in the case of ten different gall-gnats of an American willow, Salix humilis, it is difficult or impossible to tell the full-grown insects that produce them from one another. In degree of complexity of See also:internal structure galls differ considerably. Some are monothalamous, and contain but one larva of the gall-maker, whilst others are many-celled and numerously inhabited. The largest class are the unilocular, or See also:simple, See also:external galls, divided by Lacaze-Duthiers into those with and those without a superficial protective layer or rind, and composed of hard, or spongy, or cellular See also:tissue.

Ina See also:

common gall-See also:nut that authority distinguished seven constituent portions: an, epidermis; a subdermic cellular tissue; a spongy and a hard layer, composing ' P. See also:Cameron, Scottish Naturalist, ii. pp. 11-15. 2 Entomologist, vii. p. 47. ' See in Proc. Entom. See also:Soc. of See also:London for the See also:Year 1873, p. xvi. See A. See also:Muller, Gardener's See also:Chronicle (1871), pp. 1162 and 1518; Ind E. A.

See also:

Fitch, Entomologist, xi. p. 129. Entomologist, vi. pp. 275-278, 339-340. Verhandl. d. zoolog.-bot. See also:Gas. in Wien, xxi. p. 799. 7 See also:Darwin, See also:Variations of Animals and Plants under Domestication, ii. p. 282.the parenchyma proper; vessels which, without forming a See also:complete investment, underlie the parenchyma; a hard protective layer; and lastly, within that, an alimentary central See also:mass inhabited by the growing larva.' Galls are formed by insects of several orders. Among the See also:Hymenoptera are the gall-wasps (Cynips and its See also:allies), which infect the various species of oak. They are small insects, having straight antennae, and a compressed, usually very See also:short See also:abdomen with the second or second and third segments greatly developed, and the See also:rest imbricated, and concealing the partially coiled ovipositor. The transformations from the larval See also:state are completed within the gall, out of which the imago, or perfect insect, tunnels its way,—usually in autumn, though sometimes, as has been observed of some individuals of Cynips Kollari, after See also:hibernation.

Among the commoner of the galls of the Cynipidae are the " oak-See also:

apple " or " oak-sponge " of Andricus terminalis, Fab.; the " currant " or " berry galls " of Spathegaster baccarum, L., above mentioned; and the " oak-spangles " of Neuroterus lenticularis," Oliv., generally reputed to be fungoid growths, until the See also:discovery of their true nature by See also:Frederick See also:Smith,'° and the succulent " See also:cherry-galls " of Dryophanta scutellaris, Oliv. The " See also:marble " or " See also:Devonshire woody galls " of oak-buds, which often destroy the leading shoots of young trees, are produced by Cynips Kollari," already alluded to. They were first introduced into Devonshire about the year 1847, had become common near See also:Birmingham by 1866, and two or three years later were observed in several parts of See also:Scotland.12 They contain about 17% of See also:tannin.13 On See also:account of their See also:regular form they have been used, threaded on See also:wire, for making ornamental baskets. The large purplish See also:Mecca or Bussorah galls," produced on a species of oak by Cynips insana, V'Jestw., have been regarded by many writers as the Dead See also:Sea See also:fruit, mad-apples (See also:mala insana), or apples of Sodom (See also:puma sodomitica), alluded to by See also:Josephus and others, which, however, are stated by E. See also:Robinson (Bibl. Researches in See also:Palestine, vol. i. pp. 522-524, 3rd ed., 1867) to be the singular fruit called by the See also:Arabs 'Other, produced by the Asclepias gigantea or procera of botanists. What in See also:California are known as " See also:flea seeds " are oak-galls made by a species of Cynips; in See also:August they become detached from the leaves that See also:bear them, and are caused to jump by the spasmodic movements of the See also:grub within the thin-walled gall-cavity." Common gall-nuts, nut-galls, or oak-galls, the See also:Aleppo, See also:Turkey, or See also:Levant galls of See also:commerce (Ger. Gallapfel, levantische Gallen; Fr. noix de See also:Galle), are produced on Quercus infectoria, a variety of Q. Lusitanica, See also:Webb, by Cynips (Diplolepis, Latr.) tinctoria, L., or C. gallae tinctoriae Oliv. Aleppo galls (gallae halepenses) are brittle, hard, spherical bodies, - in, in See also:diameter, ridged and warty on the upper See also:half, and light See also:brown to dark greyish-yellow within. What are termed " See also:blue," See also:black," or" See also:green "galls contain the insect; the inferior " See also:white " galls, which are lighter coloured, and not so compact, heavy or astringent, are gathered after its See also:escape (see fig.

O. Less valued are the galls of See also:

Tripoli (Taraplus or Tarabulus, whence the name " Tarablous galls "). The most esteemed Syrian galls, according to Pereira, are those of See also:Mosul on the See also:Tigris. Other varieties of nut-galls, besides the above-mentioned, are employed in See also:Europe for various purposes. Commercial gall-nuts have yielded on See also:analysis from 26 (H. See also:Davy) to 77 (See also:Buchner) % of tannin (see 3 " Recherches pour servir a l'histoire See also:des galles," See also:Ann. des sci. nat. xix. pp. 293 sqq. ' According to Dr See also:Adler, See also:alternation of generations takes See also:place between N. lenticularis and Spathegaster baccarum (see E.A. See also:Ormerod, Entomologist, xi. p. 34)• 0 See Westwood, Introd. to the Mod. Classif. of Insects, ii. (1840) p.

130. 11 For figures and descriptions of insect and gall, see Entomologist, iv. p. 17, vii. p. 241, 1X. p. 53, xi. p. 131. 12 Scottish Naturalist, i. (1871) p. 116, &c. 14 Vinen, Journ. de pharm. et de chim. See also:

xxx. (1856) p. 290; " See also:English See also:Ink-Galls," Pharm.

Journ. 2nd See also:

ser. iv. p. 520. 1a See Pereira, Materia Medial, vol. ii. pt. i. p. 347; Pharm. Journ. 1st ser. vol. viii. pp. 422-424. 1' See R. H. Stretch and C. D.

Gibbes, Proc. California Acad. of Sciences, iv. pp. 265 and 266. Vinen, loc. cit.), with gallic and ellagic acids, ligneous fibre, See also:

water, and minute quantities of proteids, See also:chlorophyll,' See also:resin, See also:free See also:sugar and, in the cells around the inner shelly chamber, See also:calcium oxalate. Oak-galls are mentioned by See also:Theophrastus, Dioscorides (i. 146), and other See also:ancient writers, including See also:Pliny (Nat. Hist. xvi. 9, 10, See also:xxiv. 5), according to whom they may be produced " in a single See also:night." Their insect origin appears to have been entirely unsuspected until within comparatively See also:recent times, though Pliny, indeed, makes the observation that a See also:kind of See also:gnat is produced in certain excrescences on oak leaves. See also:Bacon describes oak-apples as " an exudation of plants joined with putrefaction." Pomet' thought that gall-nuts were the fruit of the oak, and a similar See also:opinion obtains among the See also:modern See also:Chinese, who apply to them the See also:term Mu-shih-tsze, or " fruits for the foodless."2 See also:Hippocrates administered gall-nuts for their astringent properties, and Pliny (Nat. Hist. xxiv. 5) recommends them as a remedy in affections of the gums and uvula, ulcerations of the mouth and some dozen more complaints.

In See also:

British See also:pharmacy gall-nuts are used in the preparation of the two astringent ointments unguentum gallae and unguentum gallae cum opio, and of the tinctura gallae, and also as a source of tannin and of gallic See also:acid (q.v.). They have from very See also:early times been.resorted to as a means of staining the See also:hair of a dark See also:colour, and they are the See also:base of the See also:tattooing dye of the Somali See also:women 3 The gall-making Hymenoptera include, besides the Cynipidae proper, certain species of the genus Eurytoma (Isosoma, See also:Walsh) and See also:family Chalcididae, e.g. E. hordei, the " See also:joint-See also:worm " of the See also:United States, which produces galls on the stalks of See also:wheat;' also various members of the family Tenthredinidae, or saw-flies. The larvae of the latter usually vacate their galls, to spin their cocoons in the See also:earth, or, as in the case of Athalia abdominalis, Klg., of the See also:clematis, may emerge from their shelter to feed for some days on the leaves of the gall-bearing plant. The dipterous gall-formers include the 'gall-midges, or gall-gnats (Cecidomyidae), minute slender-bodied insects, with bodies usually covered with long hairs, and the wings folded over the back. Some of them build cocoons within their galls, others descend to the ground or become pupae. The true willow-galls are the See also:work either of these or of saw-flies. Their galls are to be met with on a great variety of plants of widely distinct genera, e.g. the ash, See also:maple, See also:horn-See also:beam, oak,' See also:grape-See also:vine,' See also:alder, See also:goose-berry, See also:blackberry, See also:pine, See also:juniper, See also:thistle, See also:fennel, meadowsweet, 7 1 A Complete See also:History of Drugs (See also:translation), p. 169 (London, 1748). 2 F. See also:Porter Smith, Contrib. towards the See also:Mat. Medica .

. . of See also:

China, p. 100 (1871). 3 R. F. See also:Burton, First Footsteps in E. See also:Africa, p. 178 (1856). ' A. S. Packard, jun., See also:Guide to the Study of Insects, p. 205 (See also:Salem, 1870). 5 On the Cecidomyids of Quercus Cerris, see Fitch, Entomologist, xi•6 See, on Cecidomyia oenephila, Von Haimhoffen, Verhandl. d. zoolog.-bot.

Ges. in Wien, See also:

xxv. pp. 8o1-8ro. See Entomologist's See also:Month. Mag. iv. (1868) p. 233; and for figure and description, Entomologist, xi. p. 13.common See also:cabbage and cereals. In the See also:northern united States, in May, " legions of these delicate minute flies fill the See also:air at See also:twilight, hovering over wheat-See also:fields and shrubbery. A strong See also:north-See also:west See also:wind, at such times, is of incalculable value to the See also:farmer."8 Other gall-making dipterous flies are members of the family Trypetidae, which disfigure the seed-heads of plants, and of the family Mycetophilidae, such as the species Sciara tilicola,9 See also:Low, the cause of the oblong or rounded green and red galls of the young shoots and leaves of the See also:lime. Galls are formed also by hemipterous and homopterous insects of the families Tingidae, Psyllidae, Coccidae and Aphidae. Coccus pinicorticis causes the growth of patches of white flocculent and downy See also:matter on the smooth bark of young trees of the white pine in See also:America., The galls of examples of the last family are common See also:objects on lime-leaves, and on the petioles of the See also:poplar. An American Aphid of the genus See also:Pemphigus produces black, ragged, leathery and cut-shaped excrescences on the young branches of the See also:hickory.

there are, among the See also:

Coleoptera, certain Curculionids (gall-weevils), and species of the See also:exotic Sagridae and Lamiadae,and an 8 A. S. Packard, jun., Our Common Insects, p. 203 (Salem, U.S. 1893). On the See also:Hessian fly, Cecidomyia destructor, Say, the May brood of which produces swellings immediately above the See also:joints of See also:barley attacked by it, see See also:Asa Fitch, The Hessian Fly (See also:Albany, 1847), reprinted from Trans. New See also:York State Agric. Soc. vol. vi. 9 J. Winnertz, Beitrag zu einer Monographie der Sciarinen, p. 164 (See also:Vienna, 1867). "Asa Fitch, First and Second See also:Rep. on the Noxious .

. . Insects of the State of New York, p. 167 (Albany, 1856). u See E. See also:

Doubleday, Pharm.'Journ. 1st ser. vol. vii. p. 31o; and Pereira, ib. vol. iii. p. 377. 12 Dingler's Polyt. Journ. ccxvi. p. 453. The Chinese galls of commerce (Woo-pei-tsze) are stated to be produced by Aphis Chinensis, See also:Bell, on Rhus semialata, Murr.

(R. Bucki-amela, Roxb.), an Anacardiaceous See also:

tree indigenous to N. See also:India, China and See also:Japan. They are hollow, brittle, irregularly pyriform, tuberculated or branched vesicles, with thin walls, covered externally with a See also:grey down, and internally with a white See also:chalk-like matter, and insect-remains (see fig. 2). The escape of the insect takes place on the spontaneous bursting of the walls of the vesicle, probably when, after viviparous (thelytokous) See also:reproduction for several generations, male winged insects are developed. The galls are gathered before the frosts set in, and are exposed to See also:steam to kill the Insects." Chinese galls examined by Viedt 12 yielded 72% of tannin, and less. See also:mucilage than, Aleppo galls. Several other varieties of galls are produced by See also:Aphides on species of Pistacia. M. J. Lichtenstein has established the fact that from the egg of the Aphis of Pistachio galls, Anopleura lentisci, is hatched an apterous insect (the gall-founder), which gives See also:birth to young Aphides (emigrants), and that these, having acquired wings, fly to the roots of certain See also:grasses (Bromus sterilis and Hordeum vulgare), and by budding underground give rise to several generations of apterous insects, whence finally comes a winged brood (the pupifera): These last issuing from the ground fly to the Pistachio, and on it See also:deposit their pupae. From the pupae, again, are developed sexual individuals, the See also:females of which See also:lay fecundated eggs productive of gall-founders, thus recommencing the biological See also:cycle (see Compt. rend.., Nov.

18, 1878, p. 782, quoted in Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 1879, p. 174)• Of other insects which have been recognized as gall-makers American See also:

beetle, Saperda inornata (Cerambycidae), which forms the pseudo-galls of Salix longifolia and Populus angulata, or cottonwood. Among the See also:Lepidoptera are gall-forming species belonging to the Tineidae, Aegeriidae, Tortricidae and Pterophoridae. The larva of a New See also:Zealand See also:moth, Morava subfasciata, Walk. (Cacoecia gallicolens), of the family Drepanulidae, causes the See also:stem of a creeping plant, on the See also:pith of which it apparently subsists, to swell up into a fusiform gall.' See also:Mite-galls, or acarocecidia, are abnormal growths of the leaves of plants, produced by microscopic Acaridea of the genus Phytoptus (gall-mites), and consist of little tufts of hairs, or of thickened portions of the leaves, usually most hypertrophied on the upper surface, so that the See also:lower is See also:drawn up into the interior, producing a bursiform cavity. Mite-galls occur on the sycamore, See also:pear, See also:plum, ash, alder, vine, mulberry and many other plants; and formerly, e.g. the gall known as Erineum quercinum, on the leaves of Quercus Cerris, were taken for cryptogamic structures. The lime-leaf " See also:nail-galls " of Phytoptus tiliae closely resemble the " See also:trumpet-galls " formed on American vines by a species of Cecidomyia.2 Certain minute Nematoid See also:worms, as Anguillula scandens, which infests the ears of wheat, also give rise to galls. Besides the larva of the gall-maker, or the householder, galls usually contain inquilines or lodgers, the larvae of what are termed See also:guest-flies or See also:cuckoo-flies. Thus the galls of Cynips and its allies are inhabited by members of other cynipideous genera, as Synergus, Amblynotus and Synophrus; and the pine-See also:cone-like gall of Salix slrobiloides, as Walsh has shown,2 is made by a large species of Cecidomyia, which inhabits the See also:heart of the mass, the numerous smaller cecidomyidous larvae in its See also:outer part being See also:mere inquilines.

In many instances the lodgers are not of the same See also:

order of insects as the gall-makers. Some saw-flies, for example, are inquilinous in the galls of gall-gnats and some gall-gnats in the galls of saw-flies. Again, galls may afford See also:harbour to insects which are not essentially gall-feeders, as in the case of the Curculio beetle Conotrachelius nenuphar, Hbst., of which one brood eats the fleshy part of the plum and See also:peach, and another lives in the " black See also:knot " of the plum-tree, regarded by Walsh as probably a true cecidomyidous gall. The same authority (10c, cit. p. 550) mentions a willow-gall which provides no less than sixteen insects with See also:food and See also:protection; these are preyed upon by about eight others, so that ailtogether some twenty-four insects, representing eight orders, are dependent for their existence on what to the common observer appears to be nothing but " an unmeaning mass of leaves." Among the numerous insects parasitic on the inhabitants of galls are hymenopterous flies of the family Proctotrypidae, and of the family Chalcididae, e.g. Callimome regius, the larva of which preys on the larvae of both Cynips glutinosa and its lodger Synergus facialis. The oak-apple often contains the larvae of Braconidae and Ichneumonidae, which Von Schlechtendal (loc. sup. Cit. p. 33) considers to be parasites not on the owner of the gall, Andricus terminalis, but on inquilinous Tortricidae. Birds are to be included among the enemies of gall-insects. Oak-galls, for example, are broken open by the See also:titmouse in order to obtain the grub within, and the " See also:button-galls " of Neuroterus numis- matis, Oliv., are eaten by pheasants. A great variety of deformations and growths produced by insects and mites as well as by See also:fungi have been described.

They are in some cases very slight, and in others form remarkably large and definite structures. The whole are now included under the term Cecidia; a prefix gives the name of the organism to which the attacks are due, e.g. Phytoptocecidia are the galls formed by Phytoptid mites. Simple galls are those that arise when only one member of a plant is involved; See also:

compound galls ' For figure aiid description see See also:Zoology of the " See also:Erebus" and " Terror,' ii. pp. 46, 47 (1844-1875). 2 On the mite-galls and their makers, see F. Low, " Beitrage zur Naturgesch. der Gallmilben (Phytoptus, Duj.)," Verhandl. d. zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien, xxiv. (1874), pp. 2-16, with See also:plate; and " Hber Milbengallen (Acarocecidien) der Wiener-Gegend," ib. pp. 495-508; See also:Andrew See also:Murray, Economic See also:Entomology, Aptera, pp. 331-374 (1876) ; See also:soma:.

A. W. -See also:

Thomas, Altere and neue Beobachlungen fiber Phytopto-Cecidien (Haile, 1877).are the result of attacks on buds. Amongst the most remark-able galls recently discovered we may mention those found on See also:Eucalyptus, See also:Casuarina and other trees and plants in See also:Australia. They are remarkable for their variety, and are due to small See also:scale-insects of the See also:peculiar sub-family Brachyscelinae. As regards the mode of See also:production of galls, the most important distinction is between galls that result from the introduction of an egg, or other matter, into the interior of the plant, and those that are due to an See also:agent acting externally, the gall in the latter case frequently growing in such a manner as ultimately to enclose its producers. The form, and nature of the gall are the result of the See also:powers of growth possessed by the plant. It has long been known, and is now generally recognized, that a gall can only be produced when the tissue of a plant is interfered with during, or See also:prior to, the actual development of the tissue.. Little more than this is known. The See also:power that gall-producers possess of influencing by See also:direct interference the growth of the cells of the plant that affords them the means of subsistence is an See also:art that appears to be widely spread among animals, but is at the same See also:time one of which we have little knowledge. The views of Adler as to the alternation of generations of numerous gall-flies have been fully confirmed, it having been ascertained by direct observation that the galls and the insects produced from them in one See also:generation are entirely different from the next generation; and it has also been rendered certain that frequently one of the alternate generations is parthenogenetic, no See also:males being produced. It is supposed that these remarkable phenomena have gradually been evoked by difference in the See also:nutrition of the alternating generations.

When two different generations are produced in one year on the same kind of tree it is clear the properties of the See also:

sap and tissues of the tree must be diverse so that the two generations are adapted to different conditions. In some cases the alternating generations are produced on different species of trees, and even on different parts of the two species. On galls and their makers and inhabitants see further—J. T. C. Ratzeburg, See also:Die See also:Forst-Insecten, Tell iii. pp. 53 seq. (See also:Berlin, 1844); T. W. Harris, Insects injurious to Vegetation (See also:Boston, U.S., 2nd ed., 1852); C. L. See also:Koch, Die Pflanzenlause Aphiden (See also:Nuremberg, 1854); T.

See also:

Hartig, Die Familien der Blattwespen and Holzwespen (Berlin, 186o); Walsh, " On the Insects, Coleopterous, Hymenopterous and Dipterous, inhabiting the Galls of certain species of Willow," Proc. Ent. Soc. See also:Philadelphia, iii. (1863–1864), pp. 543-644, and vi. (1866–'867), pp. 223-288; T. A. See also:Marshall, On some British Cynipidae," Ent. Month. Mag, iv. pp.

6-8, &c.; H. W. See also:

Kidd and See also:Albert Muller, " A See also:List of Gall-bearing British Plants," ib. v. pp. 118 and 216; G. L. Mayr, Die mitteleuropdischen Eichengallen in Wort and Bild (Vienna, 187o-1871), and the translation of that work, with notes, in the Entomologist, vols. vii. seq. ; also, by the same author, " Die Einmiethler der mitteleuropaischen Eichengallen," Verhandl. d, zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien, xxii. pp. 669-726; and " Die europaischen Torymiden," ib. xxiv. pp. 53-142 (abstracted in Cistula entomologica,, i., London, I869–1876); F. Low, " Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Gallmucken," ib. pp. 143-162, and 321-328; J.

E. von Bergenstamm and P. Low, " Synopsis Cecidomyidarum," ib. See also:

xxvi. pp. 1-104; Perris, Ann. Soc. Entom. de See also:France, 4th ser. vol. x. pp. 176-185; R. Osten-Sacken, " On the North American Cecidomyidae," Smithsonian See also:Miscellaneous Collections, vol. vi. (1867), p.173 ; E. L. Taschenberg, Entomologie See also:fur Gartner and Gartenfreunde (See also:Leipzig, 1871); J. W. H.

See also:

Traill, " Scottish Galls," Scottish Naturalist, i. (1871), I1p. 123, &c.; Albert Muller, " British Gall Insects," The Entomologist's See also:Annual for 1872, pp. 1-22; B. Altum, Forstzoologie, in. •" Insecten," pp. 250 seq. (Berlin, 1874) ; J. H. Kaltenbach, Die Pflanzenfeinde aus der Classe der Insecten (See also:Stuttgart, 1874); A. d'See also:Arbois de Jubainville and J. Vesque, See also:Les Maladies des plantes cultzvees, pp. 98-to5 (See also:Paris, 1878).

(F. H.

End of Article: GALLS

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