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Aristotle, whose teaching,. with various fanciful additions, constituted the real basis of zoological knowledge throughout the middle ages. It was Wotton's merit that he rejected the legendary and fantastic accretions, and returned to Aristotle and the observation of nature. The most ready means of noting the progress of zoology during the 16th; 17th and 18th centuries is to compare the Aristotle's classificatory conceptions of successive naturalists classif- with those which are to be found in the See also:

WORKS

works of See also:

CANON

canon. Aristotle himself. Aristotle did not definitely and in See also:

TABULAR

tabular form propound a classification of animals, but from a study of his See also:

TREATISES

treatises Historia animalium, De generatione animalium, and De partibus animalium the following classification can be arrived at : A. "Evauµa, See also:

BLOOD

blood-holding animals (= Vertebrate). I.

Zworo'.ouvra iv airrois, viviparous Enaema (=Mammals, including the See also:

WHALE

Whale). 2. "Ops Oss (=Birds). 3. TtrpalroIa aaoba horosouvra, four-footed or legless Enaema which See also:

lay eggs (=See also:

REPTILES (Lat. Reptilia, creeping things, from reptilis; ref ere, to creep; Gr. Ep7rety, whence the term " herpetology," for the science dealing with them)

Reptiles and See also:

AMPHIBIA

Amphibia). 4 'IrKsc (=Fishes). X ZVIIi . 35B. "See also:

AVALON (also written AVALLON, AVOLLON, AVILION and AVELION)

Avalon, bloodless animals ( = Invertebrata). 1. Ma?obaa, soft-bodied Anaema (=See also:

CEPHALOPODA

Cephalopoda). 2.

MaXaKOOrpwca, soft-shelled Anaema (=See also:

CRUSTACEA

Crustacea). 3. "Eprsµa, insected Anaema or See also:

INSECTS

Insects (=See also:

ARTHROPODA

Arthropoda, exclusive of Crustacea). 4. 'OorpaeoIEpoara, See also:

shell-bearing Anaema (=Echini, See also:

GASTROPODA

Gastropoda and Lamellibranchiu). Wotton follows Aristotle' in the See also:

DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of animals into the Enaema and the Anaema, and in fact in the recognition of all the See also:

groups above given, adding only one large See also:

GROUP

group wotton's to those recognized by Aristotle under the Anaema, modittcanamely, the group of Zoophyte, in which Wotton !tons. includes the Holothuriae, See also:

STAR

Star-Fishes, Medusae, See also:

Sea-Anemones and See also:

SPONGES

Sponges. Wotton divides the viviparous quadrupeds into the many-toed, See also:

double-hoofed and single-hoofed. By the introduction of a method of classification which was due to the superficial See also:

Pliny—depending, not on structure, but on the See also:

MEDIUM

medium inhabited by an animal, whether See also:

earth, See also:

air or See also:

WATER

water—Wotton is led to See also:

ASSOCIATE (Lat. associates, from ad, to, and sociare to join)

associate Fishes and Whales as aquatic animals. But this is only a momentary See also:

LAPSE (Lat. lapses, a slip or departure)

lapse, for he broadly distinguishes the two kinds. The Swiss See also:

PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

professor, Konrad See also:

Gesner (1516-1565), is the most voluminous and instructive of these earliest writers on systematic zoology, and was so highly esteemed that his Historia animalium was republished a See also:

HUNDRED

hundred years after his See also:

DEATH

death. His See also:

GREAT

great See also:

WORK

work appeared in successive parts—e.g.

Vivipara, ovipara, ayes, See also:

PISCES (the fishes)

Pisces, serpentes et See also:

SCORPIO ("THE SCORPION")

scorpio —and contains descriptions and illustrations of a large number of animal forms with reference to the lands inhabited by them. Gesner's work, like that of See also:

John See also:

JOHNSTONE

Johnstone (b. 1603), who was of Scottish descent and studied at St See also:

Andrews, and like that of Ulysses See also:

ALDROVANDI, ULISSI (1522-1605)

Aldrovandi of See also:

Bologna (b. 1522), was essentially a compilation, more or less See also:

CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

critical, of all such records, pictures and relations concerning beasts, birds, reptiles, fishes and monsters as could be gathered together by one See also:

READING

reading in the great See also:

LIBRARIES

Libraries of See also:

EUROPE

Europe, travelling from See also:

CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city to city, and frequenting the See also:

COMPANY

company of those who either had themselves passed into distant lands or possessed the letters written and sometimes the specimens brought See also:

home by adventurous persons. The exploration of parts of the New See also:

WORLD

World next brought to See also:

hand descriptions and specimens of many novel forms of animal See also:

LIFE

life, and in the latter See also:

PART

part of the 16th See also:

CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century and the Medical beginning of the r 7th that careful study by " See also:

SPECIAL

special- anatomists " of the structure and life-See also:

HISTORY

history of particular See also:

ISIS (Egyptian Ese)

Isis and groups of animals was commenced, which, directed at at first to See also:

COMMON

common and See also:

FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar kinds, was gradually extended until it formed a sufficient See also:

BODY

body of knowledge to serve as an anatomical basis for classification. This minuter study had two origins, one in the researches of the medical anatomists, such as See also:

Fabricius (1537-1619), See also:

SEVERINUS

Severinus (1580-1656), See also:

Harvey (1578-1657), and Tyson (1649-1708), the other in the careful work of the entomologists and first microscopists, such as See also:

MALPIGHI, MARCELLO (1628-1694)

Malpighi (1628-1694), See also:

SWAMMERDAM, JAN (1637-168o)

Swammerdam (1637-168o), and See also:

Hook (1635-1702). The commencement of anatomical investigations deserves See also:

NOTICE

notice here as influencing the See also:

general accuracy and minuteness with which zoological work was prosecuted, but it was not until a See also:

LATE

late date that their full See also:

INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence was brought to See also:

bear upon systematic zoology by Georges Cuvier (1769-1832). The most prominent name between that of Gesner and See also:

LINNAEUS

Linnaeus in the history of systematic zoology is that of John See also:

Ray (1628-1705). A chief merit of Ray is to have John limited the See also:

TERM

term " See also:

SPECIES

species " and to have assigned to Ran it the significance which it See also:

BORE

bore till the Darwinian era, whereas previously it was loosely and vaguely applied. He also made 1 If we remember that by " blood " Aristotle understood " red blood," and that he did not know of the existence of colourless blood, his See also:

PRIMARY

primary division is not a See also:

BAD, BCD

bad one. One can imagine the See also:

INTEREST

interest and astonishment with which the great See also:

Greek would have been filled had some unduly precocious See also:

DISCIPLE

disciple shown to him the red-blood-See also:

SYSTEM

system of the marine terrestrial Annelids; the red blood of Flanorbis, of A pus cancriformis, and of the Mediterranean See also:

RAZOR (O.F. razor, mod. rasoir, from racer, to scrape, rase, Late Lat. rasare, frequentative of radere, to scrape)

razor shell, Solen legumen. 3.

4. 5. Gearless considerable use of anatomical characters in his See also:

DEFINITIONS

definitions of larger groups, and may thus be considered as the See also:

FATHER

father of modern zoology. Associated with Ray in his work, and more especially occupied with the study of the See also:

WORMS

Worms and See also:

MOLLUSCA

Mollusca, was See also:

Martin See also:

Lister (1638–1712), celebrated also as the author of the first See also:

GEOLOGICAL

geological See also:

map. After Ray's death the progress of anatomical knowledge, and of the See also:

DISCOVERY

discovery and See also:

ILLUSTRATION

illustration of new forms of animal life From from distant lands, continued with increasing vigour. Rayto We See also:

note the names of Vallisnieri (1661–1730) and Linnaeus. See also:

Alexander See also:

MONRO, DAVID BINNING (1836-1905)

Monro (1647–1767) the travellers See also:

TOURNEFORT, JOSEPH PITTON DE (1656-1708)

Tournefort (1656–1708) and See also:

Shaw (1692–1751); the collectors Rumphius (1637–1706) and Hans See also:

SLOANE, SIR HANS (1660-1753)

Sloane (166o–17S3); the entomologist See also:

REAUMUR, RENE ANTOINE FERCHAULT DE (1683-1757)

Reaumur (1683–1757); Lhwyd (1703) and Linck (1674–1734), the students of Star-Fishes; Peyssonel (b. 1694), the investigator of Polyps and the opponent of See also:

MARSIGLI [Latinized MARSILIUS], LUIGI FERDINANDO, COUNT (1658–1730)

Marsigli and Reaumur, who held them to be See also:

PLANTS

plants; See also:

Woodward, the palaeontologist (1665–1722)—not to speak of others of less importance. Two years after Ray's death Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) was born. Unlike See also:

Jacob See also:

Theodore See also:

KLEIN, JULIUS LEOPOLD (1810–1876)

Klein (1685=1759), whose careful Linnaeus. treatises on various groups of plants and animals were published during the period between Ray and Linnaeus, the latter had his career marked out for him in a university, that of See also:

UPSALA, or UPPSALA

Upsala, where he was first professor of See also:

MEDICINE

medicine and subsequently of natural history. His lectures formed a new departure in the See also:

ACADEMIC

academic treatment of zoology and See also:

BOTANY (from Gr. l3or6v17, plant; ,66vicety, to graze)

botany, which, in See also:

DIRECT

direct continuity from the middle ages, had hitherto been subjected to the traditions of the medical profession and regarded as See also:

mere branches of " materia medica." Linnaeus taught zoology and botany as branches of knowledge to be studied for their own See also:

INTRINSIC (through Fr. intrinsique, from Lat. intrinsecus, inwardly; inter, within, secus, following, from root of sequi, to follow)

intrinsic interest. His great work, the Systema naturae, ran through twelve See also:

EDITIONS

editions during his lifetime (1st ed.

1735, 12th 1768). Apart from his special discoveries in the See also:

anatomy of plants and animals, and his descriptions of new species, the great merit of Linnaeus was his introduction of a method of enumeration and classification which may be said to have created systematic zoology and botany in their See also:

PRESENT

present form, and establishes his name for ever as the great organizer, the See also:

man who recognized a great See also:

PRACTICAL

practical want in the use of See also:

LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language and supplied it. Linnaeus adopted Ray's conception of species, but he made species a practical reality by insisting that every species shall have a double Latin name —the first See also:

HALF

half to be the name of the genus common to several species, and the second half to be the specific name. Previously to Linnaeus See also:

long many-worded names had been used, sometimes with one additional See also:

ADJECTIVE (from the Lat. adjectives, added)

adjective, sometimes with another, so that no true names were fixed and accepted. Linnaeus by his See also:

BINOMIAL (from the Lat. bi-, bis, twice, and nomen, a name or term)

binomial system made it possible to write and speak with accuracy of any given species of plant or animal. He was, in fact, the See also:

Adam of zoological See also:

SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science. He proceeded further to introduce into his enumeration of animals and plants a See also:

SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of groups, viz. genus, See also:

order, class, which he compared to the subdivisions of an See also:

army or the subdivisions of a territory, the greater containing several of the less, as follows: Class. Order. Genus. Species. Variety. Genus sum- Genus inter- Genus proxi- Species.

Individuum. mum. medium. mum. Provincia. Territorium. Paroecia. Pagus. Domicilium. Legio. Cohors. Manipulus. Contubernium. See also:

MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

Miles.

Linnaeus himself recognized the purely subjective See also:

CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of his larger groups; for him species were, however, See also:

OBJECTIVE, or OBJECT GLASS

objective: " there are, " he said, " just so many species as in the beginning the See also:

INFINITE (from Lat. in, not, finis, end or limit; cf. findere, to deave)

Infinite Being created." It was reserved for a philosophic zoologist of the 19th century (See also:

Agassiz, See also:

ESSAY, ESSAYIST (Fr. essai, Late Lat. exagium, a weighing or balance; exigere, to examine; the term in general meaning any trial or effort)

Essay on Classification, 1859) to maintain that genus, order and class were also objective facts capable of precise estimation and valuation. This See also:

CLIMAX, JOHN (c. 525–600 A.D.)

climax was reached at the very moment when See also:

Darwin was See also:

PUBLISHING

publishing the Origin of Species (1859), by which universal See also:

OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion has been brought to the position that species, as well as genera, orders and classes, are the subjective expressions ofa vast ramifying See also:

PEDIGREE

pedigree in which the only objective existences are individuals, the apparent species as well as higher groups being marked out, not by any distributive See also:

law, but by the inter-See also:

ACTION

action of living See also:

MATTER

matter and its See also:

PHYSICAL

physical environment, causing the persistence of some forms and the destruction of vast series of ancestral intermediate kinds. The classification of Linnaeus (from Syst. Nat., 12th ed., 1766) should be compared with that of Aristotle. It Ciassifiis as follows—the See also:

COMPLETE

complete See also:

list of Linnaean genera cation of being here reproduced:— Linnaeus. Class I. See also:

MAMMALIA (from Lat. mamma, a teat or breast)

MAMMALIA. Order 1. See also:

Primates. Genera: Homo, Simia, See also:

LEMUR (from Lat. lemures, " ghosts ")

Lemur, Vespertilio. 2. Bruta.

Genera: Elephas, Trichecus, Bradypus, Myrmecophaga, Manis, Dasypus. Ferae. Genera : Phoca, Canis, Felis, Viverra, Mustela, Ursus, Didelphys, Talpa, Sorex, Erinaceus. Glires. Genera : Hystrix, Lepus, See also:

CASTOR

Castor, See also:

Mus, Sciurus, Noctilio. See also:

PECORA (plural of Lat. pecus, cattle)

Pecora. Genera: Camelus, See also:

MOSCHUS

Moschus, Cervus, Capra, Ovis, See also:

BOS, LAMBERT (1670—1717)

Bos. Belluae. Genera: Equus, See also:

HIPPOPOTAMUS (" river-horse," Gr. lames, horse and aoraµbs, river)

Hippopotamus, See also:

Sus, See also:

RHINOCEROS

Rhinoceros. Cete. Genera : Monodon, Balaena, Physeter, See also:

DELPHINUS (" THE DOLPHIN ")

Delphinus. Class II.

AvES. Order i. Accipitres. Genera: Vultur, Falco, Strix, Lanius. 2. Picae. Genera: (a) Trochilus, Certhia, Upupa, Buphaga, Sitta, Oriolus, Coracias, Gracula, Corms, Paradisea; (b) Ramphastos, See also:

TROGON

Trogon, Psittacus, Crotophaga, See also:

PICUS

Picus, Yunx, Cucutus, Bucco; (c) Buceros, Alcedo, Merops, Todos. Anseres. Genera: (a) Anas, Mergus, See also:

PHAETHON (Gr. gSaEBwv, shining, radiant)

Phaethon, Plotus; (b) Rhyncops, Diomedea, Alca, Procellaria, Pelecanus, Larus, Sterna, Colymbus. Grallae. Genera: (a) Phoenicopterus, Platalea, Palamedea, Mycteria, See also:

TANTALUS

Tantalus, See also:

ARDEA

Ardea, Recurvirostra, Scolopax, Tringa, Fulica, Parra, Rallus, Psophia, Cancroma; (b) Hematopus, Charadrius, See also:

Otis, Struthio. Gallinae.

Genera: Didus, Pave, Meleagris, Crax, Phasianus, Tetrao, Numida. 6. Passeres. Genera: (a) Loxia, Fringilla, Emberiza; (b) Caprimulgus, Hirundo, Pipra; (c) Turdus, Ampelis, Tanagra, MYluscicapa; (d) Pants, Motacilla, Alauda, Sturnus, See also:

COLUMBA, SAINT (Irish, Colum)

Columba. Class See also:

Ill. AMPHIBIA. Order I. R.eptilia. Genera : Testudo, See also:

Draco, Lacerta, Rana. 2. Serpentes. Genera: Crotalus, See also:

Boa, Coluber, Anguis, See also:

AMPHISBAENA (a Greek word, from &pegs, both ways, and flaivav, to go)

Amphisbaena, See also:

Caecilia.

See also:

Nantes. Genera: Petromyzon, See also:

RAJA

Raja, Squalus, See also:

CHIMAERA

Chimaera, Lophius, Acipenser, Cyclepterus, Balistes, Ostracion, Tetrodon, Diodon, Centriscus, Syngnathus, See also:

PEGASUS (from Gr. lrgyor, compact, strong)

Pegasus. Class IV. Pisces. Order 1. Apodes. Genera: See also:

MURAENA

Muraena, Gymnotus, Trichiurus, Anarrhichas, Ammodytes, Ophidium, Stromateus, Xiphias. 2. Jugulares. Genera: Callionymus, Uranoscopus, Trachinus, Gadus, Blennius. Thoracici. Genera: Cepola, Echeneis, Coryphaena, Gobius, Coitus, Scorpaena, See also:

ZEUS

Zeus, Pleuronectes, Chaetodon, Sparus, Labrus, Sciaena, Perca, Gasterosteus, Scomber, Mullus, Trigla.

Abdominales. Genera: Cobitis, Amia, Silurus, Zeuthis, Loricaria, Selmo, Fistularia, Esox, Elops, See also:

ARGENTINA

Argentina, Atherina, Mugil, Mormyrus, Exocoetus, Polynemus, Clupea, Cyprinus. 3• 4. 5. 6. 7. 3• 4. 5. 3. 3. 4. Class V.

INSECTA. Order I. See also:

COLEOPTERA

Coleoptera. Genera: (a) Scarabaeus, Lucanus, Dermestes, Hister, Byrrhus, Gyrinus, Attelabus, Curculio, Silpha, Coccinella; (b) Bruchus, Cassida, Ptinus, Chrysomela, His pa, Meloe, Tenebrio, Lampyris, Mo>della, Staphylinus; (c) Cerambyx, Leptura, Cantharis, Elater, Cicindela, Buprestis, Dytiscus, Carabus, Necydalis, Forficula. 2. See also:

HEMIPTERA (Gr. 77µi-, half and IrTep6P, a wing)

Hemiptera. Genera: Blatta, See also:

MANTIS

Mantis, Gryllus, Fulgora, See also:

CICADA (Cicadidae)

Cicada, Notonecta, Nepa, Cimex, Aphis, Chermes, Coccus, Thrips. 3. See also:

LEPIDOPTERA (Gr. ?emir, a scale or husk, and 7rrepov, a wing)

Lepidoptera. Genera: Papilio, See also:

SPHINX (Gr. Q¢lyyea', to draw tight, squeeze)

Sphinx, Phalaena. „ 4. See also:

NEUROPTERA (Gr. vevpov, a nerve, and ,rmpbv, a wing)

Neuroptera.

Genera: Libellula, Ephemera, Myrmeleon, Phryganea, Hemerobius, Panorpa, Raphidia. See also:

Hymenoptera. Genera: Cynips, Tenthredo, Sirex, See also:

ICHNEUMON (Gr. ixveu)

Ichneumon, Sphex, Chrysis, Vespa, See also:

APIS

Apis, Formica, Mutilla. 6. See also:

DIPTERA (Sir, double, arepa, wings)

Diptera. Genera: Oestrus, Tipula, Musca, Tabanus, Culex, Empis, Conops, Asilus, Bombylius, Hippobosca. See also:

APTERA (Greek for " wingless ")

Aptera. Genera: (a) Pedibus See also:

SEX (Lat. sexes; possibly connected with secure, to cut)

sex; capite a thorace discreto : Lepisma, Podura, Termes, Pediculus, Pulex. (b) Pedibus 8–14; capite thoraceque unitis: See also:

ACARUS (from Gr. a.Kapc, a mite)

Acarus, Phalangium, Aranea, Scorpio, See also:

Cancer, Monoculus, Oniscus. (c) Pedibus pluribus; capite a thorace discreto: Scolopendra, lulus. Class VI. VERMES.

Order 1. Intestina. Genera: (a) Pertusa laterali poro: Lumbricus, Sipunculus, Fasciola. (b) Imperforata poro laterali nullo: Gordius, Ascaris, Hirudo, Myxine. 2. Mollusca. Genera: (a) Ore supero; basi se afligens: Actinia, Ascidia. (b) Ore antico; corpore pertuso laterali foraminulo: Limax, Aplysia, See also:

DORIS

Doris, Tethis. (c) Ore antico; corpore tentaculis antice cincto: Holothuria, Terebella. (d) Ore antico; corpore brachiato: See also:

TRITON

Triton, See also:

SEPIA (Gr. a iria, cuttlefish)

Sepia, Clio, Lernaea, Scyllaea. (e) Ore antico; corpore pedato: Aphrodita, Nereis. (f) Ore infero centrali: See also:

MEDUSA

Medusa, See also:

ASTERIA

Asteria, See also:

ECHINUS (Gr. for " hedge-hog " or " sea-urchin ")

Echinus.

^ 3. Teslacea. Genera: (a) Multivalvia: See also:

CHITON

Chiton, Lepas, Pholas. (b) Bivalvia (= Conchae) : Mya, Solen, Tellina, Cardium, Mactra, Donax, See also:

VENUS

Venus, Spandylus, Chama, Arca, Ostrea, Anomia, Mytilus, Pinna. (c) Univalvia spira regulari (= Cochleae) : Argonauta,, See also:

NAUTILUS

Nautilus, Conus, Cypraea, Bulla, Voluta, Buccinum, Strombus, Murex, Trochus, Turbo, See also:

HELIX (Gr. € tE, a spiral or twist)

Helix, Nerita, Haliotis. (d) Univalvia absque spira regulari: Patella, Dentalium, Serpula, See also:

TEREDO

Teredo, Sabella. • 4. Lithophyta. Genera: Tubipora, Madrepora, Millepora, Cellepora. 5. Zoophyta. Genera: (a) Fixata: Isis, Gorgonia, Alcyonium, Spongia, Flustra, Tubularia, Corallina, Sertularia, See also:

VORTICELLA

Vorticella.

(b) Locomotiva: See also:

Hydra, Pennatula, See also:

TAENIA (Gr. Tatyla, ribbon, fillet)

Taenia, Volvox, Furia, See also:

CHAOS

Chaos. The characters of the six classes are thus given by Linnaeus: See also:

Cor biloculare, biauritum; Sanguine calido, rubro: Cor uniloculare, uniauritum; 1 2 Sanguine frigido; rubro: Cor uniloculare, inauritum; Sanie frigida, albida: 1 The anatomical See also:

ERROR (Lat. error, from errare, to wander, to err)

error in reference to the auricles of Reptiles and Batrachians on the part of Linnaeus is extremely interesting, since it shows to what an extent the most patent facts may See also:

ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape the observation of even the greatest observers, and what an amount of repeated See also:

DISSECTION (from Lat. dissecare, to cut apart)

dissection and unprejudiced See also:

ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention has been necessary before the structure of the commonest animals has become known. Between Linnaeus and Cuvier there are no very great names; but under the stimulus given by the admirable method and system of Linnaeus observation and description From of new forms from all parts of the world, both Linnaeus recent and fossil, accumulated. We can only cite the to cuvter. names of See also:

Charles See also:

Bonnet (1720-1793), the entomologist, who described the See also:

REPRODUCTION

reproduction of Aphis; See also:

Banks and Solander, who accompanied See also:

CAPTAIN (derived from Lat. ca put, head, through the Low Lat. capitanus)

Captain See also:

Cook on his first voyage( 1768–1771); See also:

Thomas See also:

PENNANT, THOMAS (1726-1798)

Pennant (1726–1798), the describer of the See also:

ENGLISH

English See also:

FAUNA

fauna; See also:

Peter See also:

Simon See also:

PALLAS, PETER SIMON (1741–1811)

Pallas (1741-181I), who specially extended the knowledge of the Linnaean Vermes, and under the patronage of the empress See also:

Catherine explored See also:

Russia and See also:

SIBERIA

Siberia; De Geer (1720–1778), the entomologist; Lyonnet (17o7--1789), the author of the monograph of the anatomy of the See also:

CATERPILLAR

caterpillar of Cossus ligniperdus; Cavolini (1756--18ro), the Neapolitan marine zoologist and forerunner of Della Chiaje (fl. 1828); O. F. See also:

Muller (1730-1784), the describer of fresh-water See also:

OLIGOCHAETA

Oligochaeta; See also:

ABRAHAM, or ABRAM (Hebrew for " father is high ")

Abraham Trembley (1700–1784), the student of Hydra; and O. F. Ledermuller (1719–1769), the inventor of the term See also:

INFUSORIA

Infusoria. The effect of the Linnaean system upon the general conceptions of zoologists was no less marked than were its results in the way of stimulating the See also:

ACCUMULATION (from Lat. accumulare, to heap up)

accumulation of accurately observed details. The notion of a scala naturae, which had since the days of classical antiquity been a part of the general See also:

PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy of nature amongst those who occupied themselves with such conceptions, now took a more definite form in the minds of skilled zoologists.

The species of Linnaeus were supposed to represent a aeries of steps in a See also:

scale of ascending complexity, and it was thought possible thus to arrange the animal See also:

KINGDOM

kingdom in a single series—the orders within the classes succeeding one another in See also:

REGULAR

regular gradation, and the classes succeeding one another in a similar rectilinear progression. J. B. P. de See also:

LAMARCK,

Lamarck (1744–1829) represents most completely, both by his development theory (to be further Lamarck's mentioned below) and by his See also:

SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme of classifica- atesstfttion, the high-water See also:

mark of the popular but cation, fallacious conception of a scala naturae. His classification (1801–1812) is as follows: Invertebrata. 1. Apathetic Animals. Class I. INFUSORIA. Orders: Nuda, See also:

APPENDICULATA

Appendiculata. Class II. PoLYPI.

Orders: Ciliati (See also:

ROTIFERA (or ROTATORIA)

Rotifera), Denudati (Hydroids), Vaglnati (See also:

ANTHOZOA (i.e. " flower-animals ")

Anthozoa and See also:

POLYZOA

Polyzoa), Natantes (Crinoids). Class III. RADIARIA. Orders: Mollia (Acalephae), See also:

ECHINODERMA

Echinoderma (including Actiniae). Class IV. See also:

TUNICATA

TUNICATA. Orders: Bothryllaria, Ascidia. Class V. VERMES. Orders: Molles (Tape-Worms and Flukes), Rigiduli (Nematoids), Hispiduli (Nais, &c.), Epitoariae (Lernaeans, &c.). 2. Sensitive Animals.

Class VI. INSECTA (See also:

HEXAPODA (Gr. 4, six, and gobs, foot)

Hexapoda). Orders: Aptera, Diptera, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, Neuroptera, See also:

ORTHOPTERA (Gr. Op®os, straight, and rTepov, a wing)

Orthoptera, Coleoptera. Class VII. See also:

ARACHNIDA

ARACHNIDA. Orders: Antennato-Trachealia (=See also:

THYSANURA

Thysanura and See also:

MYRIAPODA (Gr. for " many-legged ")

Myriapoda), Exantennato-Trachealia, Exantennato-Branchialia. Class VIII. CRUSTACEA. Orders: Heterobranchia (See also:

BRANCHIOPODA

Branchiopoda, Isopoda, Amphipoda, Stomapoda), Homobranchia (Decapoda). Class IX. See also:

ANNELIDA

ANNELIDA. Orders : A poda, Antennata, Sedentaria.

Class X. CIRRIPEDIA. Orders : Sessilia, Pedunculata. Class XI. CONCHIFERA. Orders: Dimyaria, Monomyaria. Class XII. MOLLUSCA. Orders: See also:

PTEROPODA

Pteropoda, Gasteropada, Trachelipoda, Cephalopoda, Heteropoda. See also:

VERTEBRATA

Vertebrata. 3. Intelligent Animals.

Class XIII. FISHES. Class XV: BIRDS. , XIV. REPTILES. „ XVI. MAMMALS. 5. 7. ,, „ viviparis, Mammalibus; oviparis, Avibus. pulmone arbitrario, Amphibiis; branchiis externis, Piscibus. antennatis, Insectis; tentaculatis, Vermibus. The enumeration of orders above given will enable the reader to form some conception of the progress of knowledge See also:

RELATING

relating to the See also:

LOWER

lower forms of life during the fifty See also:

ODD (in middle English odde, from old Norwegian oddi, an angle of a triangle; the old Norwegian oddamann is used of the third man who gives a casting vote in a dispute)

odd years which intervened between Linnaeus and Lamarck.

The number of genera recognized by Lamarck is more than ten times as great as that recorded by Linnaeus. We have mentioned Lamarck before his great contemporary Cuvier because, in spite of his valuable philosophical See also:

DOCTRINE

doctrine of development, he was, as compared with Cuvier and estimated as a systematic zoologist, a mere enlargement and logical out-come of Linnaeus. The distinctive merit of G. L. Cuvier (1769–1832) is that he started a new view as to the relationship of animals, which he Cuvkr. may be said in a large measure to have demon- strated as true by his own anatomical researches. He opposed the scala naturae theory, and recognized four distinct and divergent branches or embranchemens, as he called them, in each of which he arranged a certain number of the Linnaean classes, or similar classes. The embranchemens were characterized each by a different type of anatomical structure. Cuvier thus laid the See also:

FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of that branching See also:

tree-like arrangement of the classes and orders of animals now recognized as being the necessary result of attempts to represent what is practically a genealogical tree or pedigree. Apart from this, Cuvier was a keen-sighted and enthusiastic anatomist of great skill and See also:

INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry.;, It is astonishing how many See also:

GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good observers it re-quires to dissect and draw and See also:

RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record over and over again the structure of an animal before an apps iximately correct See also:

account of it is obtained. Cuvier dissected many Molluscs and other animals which had not previously been anatomized; of others he gave more correct accounts than had been given by earlier writers. Another special distinction of Cuvier is his remarkable work in comparing extinct with recent organisms, his descriptions of the fossil Mammalia of the Paris See also:

basin, and his general application of the knowledge of recent animals to the reconstruction of extinct ones, as indicated by fragments only of their skeletons. It was in 1812 that Cuvier communicated to the See also:

Academy of Sciences of Paris his views on the classification of animals.

He says: " Si Von considere le regne animal d'apres See also:

les principes que nous venons de poser, en se debarassant See also:

des prejuges etablis sur les divisions anciennement admises, en n'ayant egard qu' a I'organisation et a la nature des animaux, et non pas a leur grandeur, a leur utilite, au plus ou mains de connaissance que nous en avons, ni a toutes les autres circonstances accessoires, on trouvera qu'il existe quatre formes principales, quatre plans generaux, si l'on pent s'exprimer ainsi, d'apres lesquels tous les animaux semblent avoir ete rnodeles et dont les divisions ulterieures, de quelque titre que les naturalistes les aient decorees, ne sont que des modifications assez legeres, fondees sur le developpement, ou l'addition de quelques parties qui ne changent rien a l'essence du See also:

plan." Cuvk?s His classification as finally elaborated in Le Regne classification. .- catto Animal (Paris, 1829) is as follows: First See also:

BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

Branch. Animalia Vertebrata. Class I, MAMMALIA. Orders: Biniana, Quadrumana, See also:

CARNIVORA

Carnivora, See also:

Marsupialia, See also:

RODENTIA

Rodentia, See also:

EDENTATA

Edentata, Pachydermata, See also:

RUMINANTIA

Ruminantia, See also:

Cetacea. Class II. BIRDS. Orders: Accipitres, Passeres, Scansores, Gallinae, Grallae, Palmipedes. Class III. REPTILIA. Orders : Chelonia, Sauria, Ophidia, See also:

BATRACHIA

Batrachia. Class IV.

FISHES. Orders: (a) Acanthopterygii, Abdominales, Subbrachii, A podes, Lophobranchii, Plectognathi; (b) Sturiones, Selachii, Cyclostomi. Second Branch. Animalia Mollusca. Class I. CEPHALOPODA. Class II. PTEROPODA. Class III. GASTROPODA. Orders: Pulmonala, Nudibranchia, Inferobranchia, Tecti- branchia, Heteropoda, Pectinibranchia, Tubulibranchia, Scutibranchia, Cyclobranchia. Class IV.

See also:

ACE (derived through the Lat. as, from the Tarentine form of the Gr. etc)

ACE PHALA. Orders: Testacea; Tunicata. Class V. See also:

BRACHIOPODA

BRACHIOPODA. Class VI. CIRRIIOPODA. Third Branch. Animalia See also:

ARTICULATA

Articulata. Class I. ANNELIDES. Orders: Tubicolae, Dorsibranchiae, Abranchiae. Class II.

CRUSTACEA. Orders: (a)' See also:

MALACOSTRACA

Malacostraca: Decapoda, Stomapoda, Amphipoda, Laernodipoda, Isopoda; (b) See also:

ENTOMOSTRACA

Entomostraca: Branchiopoda, Poecilopoda, Trilobitae. Class III. ARACHNIDES. Orders: Pulmonariae, Tracheariae. Class IV. INSECTS. Orders: Myriapoda, Thysanura, Parasita, Suctoria, Coleoptera, Orthoptera, Hemiptera, Neuroptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, Rhipiptera, Diptera. See also:

FOURTH

Fourth Branch. Animalia See also:

RADIATA

Radiata. Class I. ECHINODERMS.

Orders: Pedicellata, Apoda. Class II. INTESTINAL WORMS. Orders: Neuzatoidea, Parenchymatosa. Class III. ACALEPHAE. Orders: Simplices, Hydrostaticae. Class IV. POLYPI (including the See also:

COELENTERA

Coelentera of later authorities and the Polyzoa). Orders: Carnosi, Gelatinosi, Polypiarii. Class V. INFUSORIA.

Orders: Rotifera, Homogenea (this includes the See also:

PROTOZOA (Gr. 7rpwros, first, and i'woe, living thing)

Protozoa of recent writers and some Protophyla). The leading See also:

IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of Cuvier, his four embranchemens, was See also:

con-firmed by the Russo-See also:

German naturalist Von See also:

Baer (1792–1876), who adopted Cuvier's divisions, speaking of them as von Baer. the peripheric, the See also:

LONGITUDINAL

longitudinal, the massive, and the vertebrate types of structure. Von Baer, however, has another See also:

PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place in the history of zoology, being the first and most striking figure in the introduction of embryology into the See also:

CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration of the relations of animals to one another. Cuvier may be regarded as the zoologist by whom anatomy was made the one important See also:

GUIDE (in Mid. Eng. gyde, from the Fr. guide; the earlier French form was guie, English " guy," the d was due to the Italian form guida; the ultimate origin is probably Teutonic, the word being connected with the base seen in O. Eng. witan, to know)

guide to the understanding of the relations of animals. But the belief, dating from Malpighi The See also:

mar-(167o), that there is a relationship to be "discovered, photo and not merely a haphazard See also:

CONGREGATION (Lat. congregatio, a gathering together, from cum, with, grex, gregis, a flock, herd)

congregation of varieties of structure to be classified, had previously gained ground. gtstB' Cuvier was familiar with the speculations of the " Natur-philosophen," and with the doctrine of transmutation and filiation by which they endeavoured to account for existing animal forms. The See also:

NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

noble aim of F. W. J. Scheiling, " das ganze System der Naturlehre von dem Gesetze der Schwere bis zu den Bildungstrieben der Organismus als ein organisches Ganze darzustellen," which has ultimately been realized through Darwin, was a general one among the scientific men of the See also:

YEAR

year 'Soo. Lamarck accepted the development theory fully, and pushed his speculations far beyond the See also:

REALM

realm of fact. The more cautious Cuvier adopted a view of the relationships of animals which, whilst denying genetic connexion as the explanation, recognized an essential identity of structure throughout whole groups of animals. This identity was held to be due to an ultimate law of nature or the Creator's plan.

The tracing out of this identity in diversity, whether regarded as See also:

EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of blood-relationship or as a remarkable display of skill on the part of the Creator in varying the details whilst retaining the essential, became at this period a special pursuit, to which See also:

GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG VON (1749-1832)

Goethe, the poet, who himself contributed importantly to it, gave the name " See also:

MORPHOLOGY, (Gr. yopdsil, form)

morphology." C. F. See also:

Wolff, Goethe and Olsen See also:

SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share the See also:

CREDIT (Lat. credere, to believe)

credit of having initiated these views, in regard especially to the structure of flowering plants and the Vertebrate See also:

SKULL

skull. Cuvier's doctrine of four plans of structure was essentially a morphological one, and so was the single-scale doctrine of See also:

BUFFON, GEORGE LOUIS LECLERC, COMTE DE (1707-1788)

Buffon and Lamarck, to which it was opposed. Cuvier's morphological doctrine received its fullest development in the principle of the " correlation of parts," which he applied to palaeontological investigation, namely, that every animal is a definite whole, and that no part can be varied without entailing correlated and law-abiding See also:

VARIA (mod. Vicovaro)

varia• tions in other parts, so that from a fragment it should be possible, had we a full knowledge of the See also:

LAWS

laws of animal structure or morphology, to reconstruct the whole. Here Cuvier was imperfectly formulating, without recognizing the real physical basis of the phenomena, the results of the laws of See also:

HEREDITY

heredity, which were subsequently investigated and brought to bear on the problems of animal stricture by Darwin. See also:

Sir See also:

Richard See also:

Owen (1804–1892) may be regarded as the fore-most of Cuvier's disciples. Owen not only occupied himself with the dissection of rare animals, such as the Pearly Owen. Nautilus, Lingula, Limulus, Prolopterus, Apteryx, &c., and with the description and reconstruction of extinct reptiles, birds and mammals—following the Cuvierian tradition—but gave precision and currency to the morphological doctrines which had taken their rise in the beginning of the century by the introduction of two terms, " homology " and " See also:

ANALOGY (Gr. avaXo-yLa, proportion)

analogy," which were defined so as to See also:

EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

express two different kinds of agreement in animal structures, which, owing to the want of such counters of thought," had been hitherto continually confused. Analogous structures in any two animals compared were by Owen defined as structures performing similar functions, but not necessarily derived from the modification of one and the same part in the " plan '' or " archetype " according to which the two animals compared were supposed to be constructed. Homologous structures were such as, though greatly differing in See also:

APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance and detail from one another, and though performing widely different functions, yet were capable of being shown by adequate study of a series of intermediate forms to be derived from one and the same part or See also:

ORGAN

organ of the " plan-form " or " archetype." It is not easy to exaggerate the service rendered by Owen to the study of zoology by the introduction of this apparently small piece of verbal mechanism ; it takes place with the classificatory terms of Linnaeus. And, though the conceptions of " archetypal morphology," to which it had reference, are now abandoned in favour of a genetic morphology, yet we should remember, in estimating the value of this and of other speculations which have given place to new views in the history of science, the words of the great reformer himself.

" Erroneous observations are in the highest degree injurious to the progress of science, since they often persist for a long time. But erroneous theories, when they are supported by facts, do little harm, since every one takes a healthy See also:

PLEASURE (through Fr. plaisir from Lat. placere, to please; Gr. rlbovii)

pleasure in proving their falsity " (Darwin). Owen's See also:

DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to, describe)

definition of analogous structures holds good at the present day. His homologous structures are now spoken of as " homogenetic " structures, the idea of community of See also:

REPRESENTATION

representation in an archetype giving place to community of derivation from a single representative structure present in a common ancestor. Darwinian morphology has further rendered necessary the introduction of the terms " homoplasy " and " homoplastic " (E. Ray Lankester, in See also:

Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 187o) to express that See also:

close agreement in form which may be attained in the course of evolutional changes by See also:

ORGANS

organs or parts in two animals which have been subjected to similar moulding conditions of the environment, but have not a close genetic community of origin, to account for their similarity in form and structure, although they have a certain identity in See also:

PRIMITIVE

primitive quality which is accountable for the agreement of their response to similar moulding conditions. The classification adopted by Owen in his lectures (1855) Owen's does not adequately illustrate the progress of zoological elassm- knowledge between Cuvier's death and that date, but, cation, such as it is, it is See also:

worth citing here. See also:

Province: Vertebrata (Myelencephala, Owen). Classes: MAMMALIA, AYES, REPTILIA, PISCES.

Province: Articulata. Classes: ARACHNIDA, INSECTA (including Sub-Classes Myriapoda, Hexapoda), CRUSTACEA (including Sub-Classes Entomostraca, Malacostraca), EPIZOA (Epizootic Crustacea), ANNELLATA (Chaetopods and Leeches), CIRRIeEDIA. Province: Mollusca. Classes: CEPHALOPODA, GASTEROPODA, PTEROPODA, LAMELLIBRANCHIATA, BRACHIOPODA, TUNICATA. Province: Radiata. Sub-Province: Radiaria. Classes: ECHINODERMATA, BRYOZOA, ANTHOZOA, ACALEPHAE, See also:

HYDROZOA

HYDROZOA. Sub-Province: Entozoa. Classes: COELELMINTHA, STERELMINTHA. Sub-Province; Infusoria. Classes: ROTIFERA, POLYGASTRIA (the Protozoa of recent authors). The real centre of progress of systematic zoology was no longer in See also:

France nor with the disciples of Cuvier in See also:

England, but after his death moved to See also:

Germany.

The See also:

WAVE

wave of morphological See also:

SPECULATION

speculation, with its outcome of new systems and new theories of classification (see Agassiz, Essay on Classification, 18J9), which were as numerous as the professors of zoological science, was necessarily succeeded in the true progress of the science by a period of minuter study in which the See also:

MICROSCOPE (Gr. µucp6s, small, asenreiv, to %view)

microscope, the discovery of embryological histories, and the all-important See also:

CELL (from Lat. cella, probably from an Indo-European kal —seen in Lat. celare, to hide; another suggestion connects the word with Lat. cera, wax, taking the original meaning to refer to the honeycomb)

cell-theory came to swell the stream of exact knowledge. The greatest of all investigators of animal structure in the 19th century was Johann Muller (1801-1858), the successor in Muller. Germany of the anatomists Rathke (1793-1860) and Meckel (1781-1833). His true greatness can only be estimated by a consideration of the fact that he was a great teacher not only of human and See also:

COMPARATIVE

comparative anatomy and zoology but also of See also:

PHYSIOLOGY (from Gr. 4 i s, nature, and koyos, discourse)

physiology, and that nearly all the mostdistinguished German zoologists and physiologists of the period 185o to 187o were his pupils and acknowledged his See also:

LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

leader-See also:

SHIP

ship. The most striking feature about Johann Mailer's work, apart from the comprehensiveness of his point of view, in which he added to the anatomical and morphological ideas of Cuvier a consideration of physiology, embryology and microscopic structure, was the extraordinary accuracy, facility and completeness of his recorded observations. He could do more with a single specimen of a rare animal (e.g. in his memoir on See also:

AMPHIOXUS, or LANCELET

Amphioxus, See also:

Berlin, 1844) in the way of making out its complete structure than the ablest of his contemporaries or successors could do with a plethora. His See also:

POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of rapid and exhaustive observation and of accurate pictorial reproduction was phenomenal. His most important See also:

MEMOIRS

memoirs, besides that just mentioned, are those on the anatomy and classification of Fishes, on the Caecilians and on the developmental history of the Echinoderms. A name which is See also:

apt to be forgotten in the period between Cuvier and Darwin, because its possessor occupied an isolated position in England and was not See also:

BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne up by any J. v. great school or university, is that of John See also:

Vaughan Thomp-See also:

Thompson (1779-1847), an army surgeon, who in 1816 son. became See also:

DISTRICT

district medical inspector at See also:

Cork, and then took to the study of marine Invertebrata by the aid of the microscope. Thompson made three great discoveries, which seem to have fallen in his way in the most natural and See also:

SIMPLE

simple manner, but must be regarded really as the outcome of extraordinary See also:

GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere)

genius. He showed (1830) that the organisms like Flustra are not hydroid Polyps, but of a more complex structure resembling Molluscs, and he gave them the name Polyzoa He discovered (1823) the Pentacrinus europaeus, and showed that it was the larval form of the See also:

FEATHER (0. Eng. (ether, Ger. Feder, from an Indo-European root seen also in Gr. lrrepov, and aEreo-Oat, to fly)

Feather-Star Antedon (Comatula). He upset (1830) Cuvier's retention of the Cirripedes among Mollusca, and his subsequent treatment of them as an isolated class, by showing that they begin life as See also:

FREE

free-See also:

SWIMMING (from " swim," A.S. swimman, the root being common in Teutonic languages)

swimming Crustacea identical with the See also:

young forms of other Crustacea.

Vaughan Thompson is a type of the marine zoologists, such as See also:

DALYELL (or DALZIELL Or DALZELL), THOMAS (d. 1685)

Dalyell, See also:

Michael Sars, P. J. See also:

Van Beneden, See also:

CLAPAREDE, JEAN LOUIS RENA ANTOINE EDOUARD (1832–187o)

Claparede, and See also:

ALLMAN, GEORGE JAMES (1812-1898)

Allman, who during the 19th century approached the study of the lower marine organisms in the same spirit as that in which Trembley and Schaffer in the 18th century, and Swammerdam in the 17th, gave themselves to the study of the See also:

minute fresh-water forms of animal life. It is impossible to enumerate or to give due consideration to all the names in the army of anatomical and embryological students of the middle third of the 19th century whose labours bore See also:

FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit in the modification of zoological theories and in the See also:

BUILDING

building up of a true classification of animals. Their results are best summed up in the three schemes of classification which follow below—those of See also:

Rudolph Leuckart (1823-1896), See also:

HENRI

Henri Milne-See also:

Edwards (180o-1884), and T. H. See also:

HUXLEY, THOMAS HENRY (1825–1895)

Huxley (1825-1895), all of whom individually contributed very greatly by their special discoveries and researches to the increase of exact knowledge. Contemporaneous with these were various schemes of classification which were based, not on a consideration of the entire structure of each animal, but on the See also:

variations of a Single-single organ, or on the really non-significant fact of fact the structure of the See also:

egg. All such single-fact systems systems have proved to be departures from the true See also:

LINE

line of of cliasslgrowth of the zoological system which was shaping flcatloa itself year by year—unknown to those who so shaped it—as a genealogical tree. They were attempts to arrive at a true know-ledge of the relationships of animals by " royal roads "; their followers were landed in barren wastes. R, Leuckart's classification (See also:

Die Morphologie and Leuckart's die Verwandtschaftsverhaltnisse der wirbellosen Thiere, :LT See also:

Brunswick, 1884) cedoa. is as follows: Type 1. Coelenterata.

Class I. POLYPI. Orders: Anthozoa and Cylicozoa. ,, II. ACALEPHAE. Orders: Discophorae and Ctenophore, • 1030 Type 2. Echinodermata. Class I. PELMATOZOA. Orders: Cystidea and Crinoidea. „ II. AcrieozoA.

Orders: Echinida and Asterida. „ III. SCYTODERMATA. Orders: Holothuriae and Sipunculida. Type 3. Vermes. Class I. ANENTERAETI. Orders: Cestodes and Acanthocephali. „ II. APODES. Orders: Nemertini, Turbellarii, Tematodes and Hirudinei.

„ III. CILIATI. Orders: Bryozoa and Rotif era. „ IV. ANNELIDES. Orders: Nematodes Lumbricini and Branchiati. Type 4. Arthropoda. Class I. CRUSTACEA. Orders: Entomostraca and Malacostraca. „ H.

INSECTA. Orders: Myriapoda, Arachnida (Acera, Latta), and Hexapoda. Type 5. Mollusca. Class I. TUNICATA. Orders: Ascidiae and Salpae. „ II. ACEPHALA. Orders: Lamellibranchiata and Brachiopoda. ,, III. GASTEROPODA.

Orders : Heterobranchia, Dermatobranchia, Heleropoda, Ctenobranchia, Pulmonata, and Cydobranchia. „ IV. CEPHALOPODA. Type 6. Vertebrata. (Not specially dealt with.) ,Milne- The classification given by Henri Milne-Edwards cciassiiri- (Cours Elementaire d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 1855) cation. is as follows: Branch I. Osteozoaria or Vertebrata. Sub-Branch I. Allantoidians. Class I. MAMMALIA. Orders: (a) See also:

MONODELPHIA (i.e. " single uterus,"—in allusion to the fusion of at least the basal portions of this organ, and in contradistinction to their duality in the Didelphia, or Marsupialia)

Monodelphia: See also:

BIMANA (Lat. " two-handed ")

Bimana, Quadrumana, Cheiroptera, Insectivore, Rodentia, Edentate, Carnivora, Amphibia, Pachydermata, Ruminantia, Cetacea; (b) Didelphia: Marsupialia, See also:

MONOTREMATA (a name referring to the single outlet for all the excretory channels of the body)

Monotremata.

,, II. BIRDS. Orders : Rapaces, Passeres, Scansores, Gallinae, Grallae, Palmipedes. „ III. REPTILES. Orders: Chelonia, Sauria, Ophidia. Sub-Branch 2. Anallantoidians. Class I. BATRACHIANS. Orders: Anura, Urodela, Perennibranchia, Caeciliae. II.

FISHES. See also:

Section I. Ossei. Orders: Acanthopterygii, Abdominales, Subbrachii, A podes, Lophobranchii, Pleclognathi. Section 2. Chondropterygii. Orders: Sturiones, Selachii, Cyclostomi. Branch II. Entomozoa or Annelata. Sub-Branch i. Arthropoda. Class I.

INSECTA. Orders: Coleoptera, Orthoptera, Neuroptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, Hemiptera, Diptera, Rhipiptera, Anopleura, Thysanura. „ 11. MYRIAPODA. Orders: Chilognatha and Chilopoda. „ III. ARACHNIDS. Orders: Pulmonaria and Trachearia. „ IV. CRUSTACEA. Section I. Podophthalmia.

Orders: Decapoda and Stomopoda. Section 2. Edriophthalmi. Orders: Amphipoda, Loemodipoda and Isopoda. Section 3. Branchiopoda. Orders: Ostracoda, Phyllopoda and Trilobitae. Section 4. Entomostraca. Orders: Copepoda, Cladocera, Siphonostoma, Lernaeida, Cirripedia. Section 5. Xiphosura.

(The orders of the classes which follow are not given in the work quoted.) Branch III. Malacozoaria or Mollusca. Sub-Branch I. Mollusca proper. Class I. CEPHALOPODA. Class III. GASTEROPODA. II.

End of Article: SYSTEMS OF

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