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EDWARD I

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Originally appearing in Volume V08, Page 993 of the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica.
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EDWARD I . (1239-1307), See also:king of See also:England, See also:born at See also:Westminster on the 17th of See also:June 1239, was the eldest son of See also:Henry III. and Eleanor of See also:Provence. He was baptized Edward after Edward the See also:Confessor, for whom Henry had See also:special veneration, and among his godfathers was See also:Simon de See also:Montfort,earlof See also:Leicester, his aunt Eleanor's See also:husband. His See also:political career begins when the conclusion of a treaty with See also:Alphonso X. of See also:Castile, by which he was to marry the See also:Spanish king's See also:half See also:sister Eleanor, necessitated the conferring on him of an adequate See also:establishment. His See also:father granted him the duchy of See also:Gascony, the earldom of See also:Chester, the king's lands in See also:Wales and much else. The See also:provision made was so liberal that Henry's subjects declared he was See also:left no better than a mutilated king. In May 1254 Edward went to Gascony to take See also:possession of his See also:inheritance. He then crossed the See also:Pyrenees, and in See also:October was dubbed See also:knight by Alphonso and married to Eleanor at the Cistercian See also:convent of See also:Las Huelgas, near See also:Burgos. He remained in Gascony till See also:November 12J5, but his father was too jealous to allow him a See also:free See also:hand in its See also:administration. After his return, the attempts of his agents to establish See also:English See also:laws in his Welsh possessions brought Edward into hostile relations with the Welsh. Here also his father would give him no help, and his first See also:campaign brought him little result. Edward became extremely unpopular through his association with his See also:Lusignan kinsfolk, his See also:pride and violence, and the disorders of his See also:household.

In 1258 his strenuous opposition to the Provisions of See also:

Oxford further weakened his position, but, after the banishment of the foreigners, he began to take up a wiser See also:line. In 1259 he led the See also:young nobles who insisted that the triumphant See also:oligarchy should carry out the reforms to which it was pledged. For a moment it looked as if Edward and Leicester might make See also:common cause, but Edward remained an enemy of Montfort, though he strove to infuse his father's party with a more liberal and See also:national spirit. He was the soul of the reconstituted royalist party formed about 1263. In 1264 he took a prominent See also:part in the fighting betweenthe king and the barons. At the See also:battle of See also:Lewes his rash pursuit of the Londoners contributed to his father's defeat. Two days later Edward surrendered to Leicester as a See also:hostage for the See also:good behaviour of his See also:allies. He was forced to give up his earldom of Chester to Leicester, but at Whitsuntide 1265 he escaped from his custodians, and joined the lords of the Welsh See also:march who were still in arms. With their aid he defeated and slew Leicester at See also:Evesham on the 4th of. See also:August 1265. For the See also:rest of Henry III.'s reign Edward controlled his father's policy and appropriated enough of Leicester's ideals to make the royalist restoration no See also:mere reaction. So peaceful became the outlook of affairs that in 1268 Edward took the See also:cross, hoping to join the new crusade of St See also:Louis.

Want of See also:

money delayed his departure till 1270, by which See also:time St Louis was dead, and a truce concluded with the infidel. Refusing to be a party to such See also:treason to Christendom, Edward went with his See also:personal followers to See also:Acre, where he See also:abode from May 1271 to August '272. Despite his See also:energy and valour he could do little to prop up the decaying crusading See also:kingdom and he narrowly escaped assassination. At last the declining See also:health of his father induced him to return to the See also:West. He learned in See also:Sicily the See also:death of Henry III. on the 16th of November 1272. On the zoth of November, the See also:day of Henry's funeral, he was recognized as king by the English barons, and from that day his regnal years were subsequently computed. Affairs in England were so peaceful that Edward did See also:net See also:hurry See also:home. After a slow See also:journey through See also:Italy and See also:France he did See also:homage to his See also:cousin See also:Philip III. at See also:Paris, on the 26th of See also:July 1273. He then went to Gascony, where he stayed nearly a See also:year. At last he landed at See also:Dover on the end of August 1274, and was crowned at Westminster on the 18th of the same See also:month. Edward was See also:thirty-five years old when he became king, and the See also:rude schooling of his youth had See also:developed his See also:character and suggested the See also:main lines of the policy which he was to carry out as monarch. He was a tall, well-proportioned and hand-some, See also:man, extravagantly devoted to military exercises, tournaments and the rougher and more dangerous forms of See also:hunting.

He had learned to restrain the hot See also:

temper of his youth, and was proud of his love of See also:justice and strict regard to his plighted word. His domestic See also:life was unstained, he was devoted to his See also:friends, and loyal to his subordinates. Without any See also:great originality either as soldier or statesman, he was competent enough to appropriate the best ideas of the time and make them his own. His defects were ahardness of disposition which sometimes approached See also:cruelty and a narrow and pedantic temper, which caused him to regard the See also:letter rather than the spirit of his promises. His effectiveness and love of strong See also:government stand in strong contrast to his father's weakness. Though he loved See also:power, and' never willingly surrendered it, he saw that to be successful he must make his policy popular. Thus he continued the See also:system which Montfort had formed with the See also:object of restraining the See also:monarchy, because he saw in a See also:close See also:alliance with his See also:people the best means of consolidating the power of the See also:crown. The first years of Edward's reign were mainly occupied by his efforts to establish a really effective administration. In carrying out this task he derived great help from his See also:chancellor, See also:Robert See also:Burnell, See also:bishop of See also:Bath and See also:Wells. Administrative reform soon involved legislation, and from 1275 to 1290 nearly every year was marked by an important See also:law. Few of these contained anything that was very new or See also:original. They rather illustrate that policy which caused Dr See also:Stubbs to describe his reign as a " See also:period of See also:definition." Yet the results of his conservative legislation were almost revolutionary.

In particular he left the impress of his policy on the See also:

land laws of England, notably by the clause De Donis of the Westminster See also:statute of 1285, and the statute Quia Emptores of 1290. The See also:general effect of his See also:work was to eliminate See also:feudalism from political life. At first he aimed at abolishing all franchises whose holders could not produce written See also:warranty for them. This was the policy of the statute of See also:Gloucester of 1278, but the baronial opposition was so resolute that Edward was forced to permit many immunities to remain. Though the most orthodox of churchmen, his dislike of authority not emanating from himself threatened to involve him in See also:constant conflict with the See also:Church, and notably with See also:John See also:Peckham, the Franciscan See also:friar, who was See also:archbishop of See also:Canterbury from 1279 to 1292. The statute of See also:Mortmain of 1279, which forbade the further See also:grant of lands to ecclesiastical corporations without the royal convent, and the See also:writ Circumspecte Agatis of 1285, which limited the church courts to strictly ecclesiastical business, both provoked strong clerical opposition. However, Peckham gave way to some extent, and Edward prudently acquiesced in many clerical assumptions which he disliked. He was strong enough to refuse to pay the See also:tribute to See also:Rome which John had promised, and his reign saw the end of that papal overlordship over England which had greatly complicated the situation under his father. Besides administration and legislation, the other great event of the first fifteen years of Edward's reign was the See also:conquest of the principality of Wales. It was part of Edward's policy of reconciliation after the battle of Evesham that in the treaty of See also:Shrewsbury of 1267 he had fully recognized the great position which See also:Llewelyn ab Gruffyd, See also:prince of Wales, had gained as the ally of Simon de Montfort. However, Llewelyn's See also:early successes had blinded the Welsh prince to the limitations of his power, and he profited by Edward's early absences from England to delay in performing his feudal obligations to the new king. Even after Edward's return Llewelyn continued to evade doing homage.

At last Edward lost See also:

patience, and in 1277 invaded See also:north Wales. He conducted his campaign like a great See also:siege, blocking all the avenues to See also:Snowdon, and forcing Llewelyn to surrender from lack of supplies. He thereupon reduced the Welsh prince to the position of a See also:petty north Welsh chieftain strictly dependent on the English. For the next five years Edward did his best to set up the English system of government in the ceded districts. The Welsh resentment of this soon gave Llewelyn another See also:chance, and compelled Edward to devote the years 1282–1283 to completing his conquest. In 1284 he issued the statute of Wales, which provided for a See also:scheme for the future government of the principality. Edward is often called the conqueror of Wales, but in truth he only effected the conquest of Llewelyn's dominions. The march of Wales was only indirectly affected by his legislation, and remained subject to its feudal marcher lords until the 16th See also:century. Edward was very careful in his See also:foreign policy. Though preserving nominal See also:peace with his cousin Philip III. of France, his relations with that See also:country were constantly strained. After Philip III.'s death in 1285, Edward crossed the Channel in 1286, to perform homage to his successor, Philip the See also:Fair. He remained abroad till 1289, busied in attempts to improve the administration of Gascony, and making repeated and finally successful efforts to end by his See also:mediation the still continuing struggle between the houses of See also:Anjou and See also:Aragon.

His See also:

long See also:absence threw the government of England into confusion, and on his return in 1289 he was compelled to dismiss most of his See also:judges and ministers for corruption. In 1290 he expelled all See also:Jews from England. The affairs of See also:Scotland furnished Edward with his See also:chief pre-occupation for the rest of his reign. After the death of See also:Alexander III., in 1286, Scotland was governed in the name of his See also:grand-daughter See also:Margaret, the Maid of See also:Norway. The English king had suggested that Edward of See also:Carnarvon, his eldest surviving son, should marry the little See also:queen of Scots, and thus bring about the See also:union of the two countries. Unluckily the death of Margaret in 1290 frustrated the scheme. The Scottish See also:throne was now disputed by many claimants, and the Scots asked Edward to arbitrate between them. Edward accepted the position, but insisted that, before he acted, the Scots should recognize him as their overlord. The claimants set the example of submission, and soon the chief Scots nobles followed. Thereupon Edward undertook the See also:arbitration, and in 1292 adjudged the throne to John See also:Baliol. The new king did homage to Edward, but his subjects soon began to resent the claims of See also:jurisdiction over Scotland, which Edward declared were the natural results of his feudal supremacy. At last the Scots deprived John of nearly all his power, repudiated Edward's claims, and made an alliancewith the See also:French.

During the years of the Scottish arbitration Edward had slowly been drifting into See also:

war with France. The chronic difficulties caused by French attempts to confine Edward's power in Gascony were now accentuated by the quarrels between the sailors and merchants of the two countries. In 1293 Edward was persuaded by his See also:brother, See also:Edmund, See also:earl of See also:Lancaster, to yield up Gascony temporarily to Philip the Fair. But Philip refused to restore the duchy, and Edward, seeing that he had been tricked, declared war against France, at the very moment when the Scottish resistance gave the French a See also:firm ally in See also:Britain. To make matters worse, the Welsh See also:rose in See also:rebellion. It was therefore quite impossible for Edward to recover Gascony. The most See also:critical years of Edward's reign now began. He saw that he could only meet his difficulties by throwing himself on the support of his own subjects, and convoked, in 1295, a representative See also:parliament of the three estates, which has been called in later times the See also:Model Parliament, because it first illustrated the type which was to be perpetuated in all subsequent parliaments. " What touches all," ran Edward's writ of See also:summons, " should be approved of all, and it is also clear that common dangers should be met by See also:measures agreed upon in common." The See also:parliamentary constitution of England was established as the result of Edward's See also:action. Secure of his subjects' See also:allegiance, Edward put down the Welsh revolt, and conquered Scotland in 1296. When quiet was restored to Britain, he hoped to throw all his energy into the recovery of Gascony, but new troubles arose at home which once more diverted him from his supreme purpose. Led by Archbishop See also:Winchelsea, Peckham's successor, the See also:clergy refused to pay taxes in obedience to the See also:bull of See also:Pope See also:Boniface VIII., called Clericis Laicos.

Edward declared that if the clergy would not contribute to support the See also:

state, the state could afford them no See also:protection. But the clerical opposition was soon joined by a baronial opposition. Headed by the earls of See also:Hereford and See also:Norfolk, many of the barons declined to join in an expedition to Gascony, and Edward was forced to See also:sail to the French war, leaving them behind. Thereupon the recalcitrant barons forced upon the regency a fresh See also:confirmation of the charters, to which new articles were added, safeguarding the people from arbitrary See also:taxation. Edward at See also:Ghent reluctantly accepted this Confirmatio Cartarum, but even his submission did not end the crisis. In the same year (1297), all Scotland rose in revolt under the popular See also:hero See also:William See also:Wallace, and next year (1298), Edward was forced to undertake its reconquest. The battle of See also:Falkirk, won on the 22nd of July, was the greatest of Edward's military triumphs; but, though it destroyed the power of Wallace, it did not put an end to Scottish resistance. See also:Bitter experience taught Edward that he could not fight the French and the Scots at the same time, and in 1299 he made peace with Philip, and, Eleanor having died in November 1290, he married the French king's sister Margaret (c. 1282–1318), and some years later obtained the restitution of Gascony. In the same spirit he strove to destroy the clerical and baronial opposition. He did not succeed in the former task until a complacent pope arose in his own subject, See also:Clement V., who abandoned Winchelsea to his anger, and suffered the archbishop to be driven into See also:exile. The baronial leaders could not be wholly overthrown by force, and Edward was compelled to make them fresh concessions.

It was not until 1303 that Edward was able to undertake seriously the conquest of Scotland. By 1305 the land was subdued, and Wallace beheaded as a traitor. But Edward had hardly organized the government of his new conquest when a fresh revolt See also:

broke out under Robert See also:Bruce, See also:grandson of the chief See also:rival of Baliol in 1290. Bruce was soon crowned king of Scots, and at the See also:age of seventy Edward had to See also:face the prospect of conquering Scotland for the third time. He resolved to take the See also:field in See also:person; but the effort was too great, and on the 7th of July 1307 he died at See also:Burgh-on-Sands, near See also:Carlisle. His death destroyed the last faint See also:hope of conquering Scotland, and showed that the chief ambition of his life was a failure. Yet his conquest of Wales, his legislation, his See also:triumph over his barons, his ecclesiastics, and the greatest of French See also:medieval See also:kings indicate the strength and permanence of his work. He was buried at Westminster under a See also:plain slab on which was inscribed Edwardus See also:Primus Scottorum malleus hic est. Pactum serva. By Eleanor of Castile Edward had four sons, his successor Edward II. and three who died young, and nine daughters, including See also:Joan, or See also:Joanna (1272-1307), the wife of See also:Gilbert de See also:Clare, earl of Gloucester (d. 1295), and then of See also:Ralph de Monthermer; Margaret (1275-1318), the wife of John II., See also:duke of See also:Brabant; and Eleanor (1282-1316), who married John I., See also:count of See also:Holland, and then See also:Humphrey See also:Bohun, earl of Hereford (d. 1322).

By Margaret of France the king had two sons: See also:

Thomas of Brotherton, earl of Norfolk, and Edmund of See also:Woodstock, earl of See also:Kent. The See also:principal See also:modern authorities for this reign are: W. Stubbs, Constitutional See also:History of England, vol. ii. chaps. xiv. and xv. (1896); T. F. Tout, Edward I. (1893), and Political History of England, 1216-1377, pp. 136-235 (1905); R. B. See also:Seeley, Life and Reign of Edward I. (1872); R. See also:Pauli, Geschichte von England, iv. pp.

1-198 (See also:

Ham-See also:burg, 1864-1875) ; W. See also:Hunt, See also:article on " Edward I." in See also:Dictionary of National See also:Biography; J. E. See also:Morris, Welsh See also:Wars of Edward I. (Oxford, 1901); and C. V. See also:Langlois's Philippe le Hardi (Paris, 1887). (T. F.

End of Article: EDWARD I

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