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JUSTIN MARTYR
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See also:JUSTIN See also:MARTYR , one of the earliest and ablest See also:Christian apologists, was See also:born about too at Flavia Neapolis (anc. Sichem), now Nablus, in Palestinian See also:Syria (See also:Samaria). His parents, He describes the course of his religious development in the introduction to the See also:dialogue with the See also:Jew Trypho, in which he relates how See also:chance intercourse with an aged stranger brought him to know the truth. Though this narrative is a mixture of truth and fiction, it may be said with certainty that a thorough study of the See also:philosophy of See also:Peripatetics and Pythagoreans, See also:Stoics and Platonists, brought See also:home to Justin the conviction that true knowledge was not to be found in them. On the other See also:hand, he came to look upon the Old Testament prophets as approved by their antiquity, sanctity, See also:mystery and prophecies to be interpreters of the truth. To this, as he tells us in another See also:place (Apol. if. 12), must be added the deep impression produced upon him by the See also:life and See also:death of See also:Christ. His See also:conversion apparently took place at See also:Ephesus; there, at any See also:rate, he places his decisive interview with the old See also:man, and there he had those discussions with See also:Jews and converts to Judaism, the results of which he in later years set down in his Dialogue. After his conversion he retained his philosopher's cloak (Euseb., Hist. Eccl. iv. 11. 8), the distinctive badge of the wandering professional teacher of philosophy, and went about from place to place discussing the truths of See also:Christianity in the See also:hope of bringing educated Pagans, as he himself had been brought, through philosophy to Christ. In See also:Rome he made a fairly See also:long stay, giving lectures in a class-See also:room of his own, though not without opposition from his See also:fellow-teachers. Among his opponents was the Cynic Crescentius (Apol. ii. 13). See also:Eusebius (Hist. Eccl. iv. 16. 7-8) concludes somewhat hastily, from the statement of Justin and his See also:disciple See also:Tatian (Orat. ad Graec. 19), that the See also:accusation of Justin before the authorities, which led to his death, was due to Crescentius. But we know, from the undoubtedly genuine Acta SS Justini et sociorum, that Justin suffered the death of a martyr under the See also:prefect Rusticus between 163 and 167. To See also:form an See also:opinion of Justin as a Christian and theologian, we must turn to his See also:Apology and to the Dialogue with the Jew Trypho, for the authenticity of all other extant See also:works attributed to him is disputed with See also:good See also:reason. The Apology—it is more correct to speak of one Apology than of two, for the second is only a continuation of the first, and dependent upon it--was written in Rome about 150. In the first See also:part Justin defends his fellow-believers against the See also:charge of See also:atheism and hostility to the See also:state. He then draws a See also:positive demonstration of the truth of his See also:religion from the effects of the new faith, and especially from the excellence of its moral teaching, and concludes with a comparison of Christian and See also:Pagan doctrines, in which the latter are set down with naive confidence as the See also:work of demons. As the See also:main support of his See also:proof of the truth of Christianity appears his detailed demonstration that the prophecies of the old See also:dispensation, which are older than the Pagan poets and philosophers, have found their fulfilment in Christianity. A third part shows, from the practices of their religious See also:worship, that the Christians had in truth dedicated themselves to See also:God. The whole closes with an See also:appeal to the princes, with a reference to the See also:edict issued by See also:Hadrian in favour of the Christians. In the so-called Second Apology, Justin takes occasion from the trial of a Christian recently held in Rome to argue that the innocence of the Christians was proved by the very persecutions. Even as a Christian Justin always remained a philosopher. By his conscious recognition of the See also:Greek philosophy as a preparation for the truths of the Christian religion, he appears as the first and most distinguished in the long See also:list of those who have endeavoured to reconcile Christian with non-Christian culture. Christianity consists for him in the doctrines, guaranteed by the manifestation of the See also:Logos in the See also:person of Christ, of God, righteousness and See also:immortality, truths which have been to a certain extent foreshadowed in the monotheistic religious philosophies. In this See also:process the conviction of the reconciliation of the sinner with God, of the salvation of the See also:world and the individual through Christ, See also:fell into the background before the vindication of supernatural truths intellectually conceived. Thus Justin may give the impression of having rationalized Christianity, and of not having given it its full JUTE, a See also:vegetable fibre now occupying a position in the manu- value as a religion of salvation. It must not, however, be forgotten that Justin is here speaking as the apologist of Christianity to an educated Pagan public, on whose philosophical view of life he had to See also:base his arguments, and from whom he could not expect an intimate comprehension of the religious position of Christians. That he himself had a thorough comprehension of it he showed in the Dialogue with the Jew Trypho. Here, where he had to See also:deal with the Judaism that believed in a See also:Messiah, he was far better able to do See also:justice to Christianity as a See also:revelation; and so we find that the arguments of this work are much more completely in See also:harmony with See also:primitive Christian See also:theology than those of the Apology. He also displays in this work a consider-able knowledge of the Rabbinical writings and a skilful polemical method which was surpassed by none of the later See also:anti-Jewish writers.
Justin is a most valuable authority for the life of the Christian See also: Thus Justin's writings were not much read, and at the See also:present See also:time both the Apology and the Dialogue are preserved in but a single MS. (See also:cod. See also:Paris, 450, A.D. 1364). The fibre is obtained from two See also:species of Corchorus (nat. ord. Tiliaceae), C. capsularis and C. olitorius, the products of both being so essentially alike that neither in See also:commerce nor See also:agriculture is any distinction made between them. These and various other species of Corchorus are natives of See also:Bengal, where they have been cultivated from very remote times for economic purposes, although there is reason to believe that the cultivation did not originate in the See also:northern parts of See also:India. The two species cultivated for jute fibre are in all respects very similar to each other, except in their fructification and the relatively greater See also:size attained by C. capsularis. They are See also:annual See also:plants from 5 to 10 ft. high, with a cylindrical stalk as thick as a man's See also:finger, and hardly branching except near the See also:top. The See also:light-See also:green leaves are from 4 to 5 in. long by 12 in. broad above the base, and See also:taper upward into a See also:fine point; the edges are serrated; the two See also:lower See also:teeth are See also:drawn out into bristle-like points. The small whitish-yellow See also:flowers are produced in clusters of two or three opposite the leaves. The capsules or See also:seed-pods in the See also:case of C. capsularis are globular, rough and wrinkled, while in C. olitorius they are slender, See also:quill-like cylinders (about 2 in. long), a very marked distinction, as may be noted from fig. 1, in which a and b show the capsules of C. capsularis and C. olitorius respectively. Fig. 2 represents a flowering top of C. olitorius. Both species are cultivated in India, not only on account of their fibre, but also for the See also:sake of their leaves, which are there extensively used as a pot-See also:herb. The use of C. olitorius for the latter purpose See also:dates from very See also:ancient times, it if may be identified, as some suppose, with the mallows (715r?) mentioned in See also:Job See also:xxx. 4; hence the name Jew's See also:mallow. It is certain that the Greeks used this plant as a pot-herb; and by many other nations around the shores of the Mediterranean this use of it was, and is still, See also:common. Throughout Bengal the name by which the plants when used as edible vegetables are recognized is nalila; when on the other hand they are spoken of as fibre-producers it is generally under the name pat. The cultivation of C. capsularis is most prevalent in central and eastern Bengal, while in the neighbourhood of See also:Calcutta, where, however, the See also:area under cultivation is limited, C. olitorius is principally grown. The fibre known as See also:China jute or Tien-tsin jute is the product of another plant, See also:Abutilon Avicennae, a member of the Mallow See also:family. Cultivation and Cropping.—Attempts have been made to grow the jute plant in See also:America, See also:Egypt, See also:Africa and other places, but up to the present the fibre has proved much inferior to that obtained from plants grown in India. Here the cultivation of the plant extends from the See also:Hugli through eastern and northern Bengal. The successful cultivation of the plant demands a hot, moist See also:climate, with a See also:fair amount of See also:rain. Too much rain at the beginning of the See also:season is detrimental to the growth, while a very dry season is disastrous. The climate of eastern and northern Bengal appears to be ideal for the growth of the plant. The quality of the fibre and the produce per See also:acre depend in a measure on the preparation of the See also:soil. The ground should be ploughed about four times and all weeds removed. The seed is then sown broadcast as in the case of See also:flax. It is only within quite See also:recent years that any See also:attention has been paid to the selection of the seed. The following See also:extract from See also:Capital (See also:Jan. 17, 1907) indicates the new interest taken in it. " Jute seed experiments are being continued and the See also:report for 1906 has been issued. The See also:object of these experiments is, of course, to obtain a better class of jute seed by growing plants, especially for no other purpose than to obtain their seed. The agricultural See also:department has about 300 maunds (25,000 lb) of selected seed for See also:distribution this See also:year. The selling See also:price is to be Rs. 10 per maund. The agricultural department of the See also:government of Bengal are now fully alive to the importance of fostering the jute See also:industry by showing conclusively that attention to scientific agriculture will make two maunds of jute grow where only one maund See also:grew before. Let them go on (as they will) till all the ryots are thoroughly indoctrinated into the new See also:system."
The time of See also:sowing extends from the middle of See also: After the first few days of See also:immersion the stalks are examined daily to test the progress of the retting. When the See also:fibres are easily separated from the stalk, the operation is See also:complete and the bundles should be withdrawn. The following description of the retting of jute is taken from See also:Royle's Fibrous Plants of India: " The proper point being attained, the native operator, See also:standing up to his middle in water, takes as many of the sticks in his hands as he can grasp, and removing a small portion of the bark from the ends next the roots, and grasping them together, he strips off the whole with a little management from end to end, without breaking either See also:stem or fibre. Having prepared a certain quantity into this See also:half state, he next proceeds to See also:wash off : this is done by taking a large handful; swinging it See also:round his See also:head he dashes it repeatedly against the See also:surface of the water, See also:drawing it through towards him, so as to wash off the impurities; then, with a dexterous throw he fans it out on the surface of the water and carefully picks off all remaining See also:black spots. It is now wrung out so as to remove as much water as possible, and then hung up on lines prepared on the spot, to dry in the See also:sun." The separated fibre is then made up into bundles ready for sending to one of the jute presses. The jute is carefully sorted into different qualities, and then each See also:lot is subjected to an enormous See also:hydraulic pressure from which it emerges in the shape of the well-known See also:bales, each weighing 400 lb. The crop naturally depends upon the quality of the soil, and upon the attention which the fibre has received in its various stages; the yield per acre varies in different districts. Three bales per acre, or 1200 lb is termed a t00% crop, but the usual quantity obtained is about 2.6 bales per acre. Sometimes the crop is stated in lakhs of 100,000 bales each. The crop in 1906 reached nearly 9,000,000 bales,. and in 1907 nearly 10,000,000 was reached. The following particulars were issued on the 19th of See also:September 1906 by Messrs. W. F. Souter & Co., See also:Dundee:— Actual Estimated yield Estimated ' Shipment to See also:Europe. Shipment to America. Supplies to Out-turn See also:total See also:Indian See also:mills Jute. Cuttings. Jute. Cuttings. Year. acreage. equal bales crop. and See also:local total crop. 3o per acre). Bales. Bales. Bales. Bales. Bales. See also:consumption. Bales.
1901—1st 2,216,500 94%= 6,250,000
Final 2,249,000 96%= 6,500,000 3,528,691 54,427 295,921 426,331 3,100,000= 7,405,370
1902—1st 2,200,000 8o%= 5,280,000
Final 2,200,000 8o%= 5,280,000 2,773,621 39,019 230,415 207,999 2,600,000= 5,851,054
1903—1st 2,100,000 85%= 5,400,000
Final 2,250,000 93; /s = 6,500,000 3,161,791 59,562 329,048 236,959 3,650,x= 7,437,360
1904—1st 2,700,000 872 %= 7,100,000
Final 2,850,000 85 %= 7,400,000 2,939,940 44,002 253,882 290,854 3,475,782 = 7,004,460
1905--1st 3,163,500 87%= 8,250,000
Final 3,145,000 87 %= 8,200,000)
Outlying 200,000 j 3,483,315 63,118 347,974 245,044 4,018,523 = 8,233,358
See also:Madras 75 684
1906—1st 3,271,400 87%= 8,713,000
Outlying 67,000 Madras 1oo,000
Final 3,336,400 8,736,220
(Outlying districts and Madras, say 250,000 bales
additional)
Estimated consumption of jute 1906–1907. Bales per annum.
1,250,000
• 20,000
^ 25,000 475,E 120,000 750,000 262,000 62,500 180,000
See also: Bales. Bales. Bales. See also:United See also:Kingdom . . 1,200,000 1,200,000 1,295, 1 See also:Continent I,See also:Ioo,000 1,800,000 2,124,500 America 500,000 500,000 600,000 Indian mills . . 1,500,000 2,900,000 3,900,000 1 Local Indian consumption . 500,000 500,000 500,000 Total jute crop consumption 4,800,000 6,900,000 8,419,500 A number of experiments in jute cultivation were made during 1906, and the report showed that very encouraging results were obtained from See also:land manured with cow-dung. If more scientific attention be given to the cultivation it is quite possible that what is now considered as t00% yield may be exceeded. Characteristics.—The characters by which qualities of jute are judged are colour, lustre, softness, strength, length, firmness, uniformity and See also:absence of roots. The best qualities are of a clear whitish-yellow colour, with a fine silky lustre, soft and smooth to the See also:touch, and fine, long and See also:uniform in fibre. When the fibre is intended for goods in the natural colour it is essential that it should be of a light shade and uniform, but if intended for yarns which are to be dyed a dark shade, the colour is not so important. The cultivated plant yields a fibre with a length of from 6 to to ft., but in exceptional cases it has been known to reach 14 or 15 ft. in length. The fibre is decidedly inferior to flax and hemp in strength and tenacity; and, owing to a peculiarity in its microscopic structure, by which the walls of the See also:separate cells composing the fibre vary much in thickness at different points, the single strands of fibre are of unequal strength. Recently prepared fibre is always stronger, more lustrous, softer and whiter than such as has been stored for some time—See also:age and exposure rendering it See also: Its colour, which is not so high as Serajgunge, begins with a cream shade and approaches red at the roots. All the better class yarns are spun from these two kinds. Daisee is similar to Serajgunge in softness, is of good quality and of great length; its See also:drawback is the See also:low colour, and hence it is not so suitable for using in natural colour. It is, however, a valuable fibre for See also:carpet yarns, especially for dark yarns. Dowrah is a strong, harsh and low quality fibre, and is used principally for heavy wefts. Each class is subdivided according to the quality and colour of the material, and each class receives a distinctive See also:mark called a baler's mark. Thus, the finest fibres may be divided as follows: Superfine first marks. Extra fine first marks 1st, 2nd and 3rd See also:numbers. Superior first marks ,, IP See also:Standard „ „ ,, Good ,, See also:Ordinary , ,, ,, Good second ,, ,, Ordinary ,, The lower qualities are, naturally, divided into fewer varieties. Each baler has his own marks, the fibres of which are guaranteed equal in equality to some standard mark. It would be impossible to give a list of the different marks, for there are hundreds, and new marks are constantly being added. A list of all the See also:principal marks is issued in See also:book form by the Calcutta Jute Baler's association. The relative prices of the different classes depend upon the crop, upon the demand and upon the quality of the fibre; in 1905 the prices of Daisee jute and First Marks were practically the same, although the former is always considered inferior to the latter. It does not follow that a large crop of jute will result in low prices, for the year 1906–1907 was not only a See also:record one for crops, but also for prices. R. F. C. grade has been as high as £40 per ton, while its lowest recorded price is £12. Similarly the price for First Marks reached £29, 15s. in 1906 as compared with £9, 5s. per ton in 1897. The following table shows a few well-known grades with the See also:average prices during See also:December for the years 1903, 1904, 1905 and 1906. Class. Dec. 1903. Dec. 1904. Dec. 1905. Dec. 1906. First marks . £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. 0 16 0 0 19 15 0 27 15 0 12 15 Black S C C .. Ii 2 6 14 5 0 17 15 0 20 15 0 Red S C C . .. 12 0 0 14 17 6 18 15 0 23 15 0 Native rejections. 8 2 6 — 14 10 0 15 17 6 S 4 See also:group . . — — 25 10 0 38 0 0 — R F See also:block D group — — 36 0 0 R F circle D group 14 10 0 16 15 0 21 10 0 — R F D group . 11 15 0 14 2 6 17 12 6 22 0 0 NBgreenD. . 14 5 0 — 21 0 0 32 0 0 See also:Heart T 4 . . 14 12 6 17 10 0 22 10 0 34 0 0 HeartT5. 14 12 6 17 10 0 21 0 0 31 0 0 Daisee 2 12 17 6 — 18 15 0 25 10 0 Daisee assortment 12 10 0 14 17 6 18 5 0 — Mixed cuttings . 4 5 0 — Io 0 0 10 0 0 Jute Manufacture.—Long before jute came to occupy a prominent place amongst the textile fibres of Europe, it formed In Europe See also:Scotland See also:England See also:Ireland See also:France See also:Belgium . See also:Germany See also:Austria and Bohemia See also:Norway and See also:Sweden See also:Russia .. the raw material of a large and important industry throughout the regions of Eastern Bengal. The See also:Hindu See also:population made the material up into cordage, See also:paper and See also:cloth, the See also:chief use of the latter being in the manufacture of See also:gunny bags. Indeed, up to 1830-1840 there was little or no competition with hand labour for this class of material. The process of See also:weaving gunnies for bags and other coarse articles by these hand-See also:loom weavers has been described as follows: " Seven sticks or chattee weaving-posts, called tang pares or warp, are fixed upon the ground, occupying the length equal to the measure of the piece to be See also:woven, and a sufficient number of twine or See also:thread is See also:wound on them as warp called See also:lang. The warp is taken up and removed to the weaving See also:machine. Two pieces of See also:wood are placed at two ends, which are tied to the ohari and okher or See also:roller; they are made fast to the khoti. The belut or treadle is put into the warp; next to that is the sarsul; a thin piece of wood is laid upon the warp, called chupari or regulator. There is no sley used in this, nor is a See also:shuttle necessary; in the room of the latter a stick covered with thread. called singa is thrown into the warp as woof, which is beaten in by a piece of See also:plank called beyno, and as the cloth is woven it is wound up to the roller. Next to this is a piece of wood called khetone, which is used for smoothing and regulating the woof ; a stick is fastened to the warp to keep the wocf straight." Gunny cloth is woven of numerous qualities, according to the purpose to which it is devoted. Some kinds are made See also:close and dense in texture, for carrying such seed as See also:poppy or See also:rape and See also:sugar; others less close are used for See also:rice, pulses, and seeds of like size, and coarser and opener kinds again are woven for the See also:outer See also:cover of packages and for the sails of See also:country boats. There is a thin close-woven cloth made and used as garments among the See also:females of the aboriginal tribes near the See also:foot of the Himalayas, and in various localities a cloth of pure jute or of jute mixed with See also:cotton is used as a See also:sheet to See also:sleep on, as well as for wearing purposes. To indicate the variety of uses to which jute is applied, the following See also:quotation may be cited from the See also:official report of Hem Chunder Kerr as applying to Midnapur. " The articles manufactured from jute are principally (I) gunny bags; (2) See also:string, rope and See also:cord; (3) See also:ham pa, a See also:net-like bag for carrying wood or See also:hay on bullocks; (4) chat, a See also:strip of stuff for tying bales of cotton or cloth; (5) dola, a See also:swing on which infants are rocked to sleep; (6) shika, a See also:kind of See also:hanging shelf for little earthen pots, &c.; (7) dulina, a See also:floor-cloth; (8) beera, a small circular stand for wooden plates used particularly in poojahs; (9) painter's See also:brush and brush for white-washing; (to) ghunsi, a See also:waist-See also:band worn next to the skin; (I I) gochh-dari, a See also:hair-band worn by See also:women; (12) mukbar, a net bag used as muzzle for See also:cattle; (13) parchula, false hair worn by players; (14) rakhi-bandhan, a slender See also:arm-band worn at the Rakhi-poornima festival; and (15) dhup, small See also:incense sticks burned at poojahs." The fibre began to receive attention in Great See also:Britain towards the close of the 18th century, and See also:early in the 19th century it was spun into See also:yarn and woven into cloth in the See also:town of See also:Abingdon. It is claimed that this was the first See also:British town to manufacture the material. For years small quantities of jute were imported into Great Britain and other See also:European countries and into America, but it was not until the year 1832 that the fibre may be said to have made any great impression in Great Britain. The first really practical experiments with the fibre were made in this year in Chapelshade Works, Dundee, and these experiments proved to be the See also:foundation of an enormous industry. It is interesting to See also:note that the site of Chapelshade Works was in 1907 cleared for the erection of a large new technical See also:college. In common with practically all new See also:industries progress was slow for a time, but once the value of the fibre and the cloth produced from it had become known the development was more rapid. The pioneers of the work were confronted with many difficulties; most See also:people condemned the fibre and the cloth, many warps were discarded as unfit for weaving, and any See also:attempt to mix the fibre with flax, See also:tow or hemp was considered a form of deception. The real cause of most of these objections was the fact that suitable machinery and methods of treatment had not been See also:developed for preparing yarns from this useful fibre. See also:Warden in his See also:Linen See also:Trade says: " For years after its introduction the principal spinners refused to have anything to do with jute, and cloth made of it long retained a tainted reputation. Indeed, it was not until Mr. Rowan got the Dutch government, about 1838, to substitute jute yarns for those made from flax in the manufacture of the See also:coffee See also:bagging for their See also:East Indian possessions, that the jute trade in Dundee got aproper start. That fortunate circumstance gave an impulse to the spinning of the fibre which it never lost, and since that period its progress has been truly astonishing." The demand for this class of bagging, which is made from fine See also:hessian yarns, is still great. These fine Rio hessian yarns form an important See also:branch of the Dundee trade, and in some See also:weeks during 1906 as many as boo bales were despatched to See also:Brazil, besides numerous quantities to other parts of the world. For many years Great Britain was the only European country engaged in the manufacture of jute, the great seat being Dundee. Gradually, however, the trade began to extend, and now almost every European country is partly engaged in the trade. The success of the See also:mechanical method of spinning and weaving of jute in Dundee and See also:district led to the introduction of textile machinery into and around Calcutta. The first See also: The development of the trade with countries outside India from 1828 to 1906 may be seen by the following figures of exports: II,800 cwt. 67,483 117,047 234,055 439,850 710,826 969,724 2,628,II0 4,858,162 5,362,267 7,274,000 8,223,859 10,372,991 12,084,292 11,959,189 13,693,090 1 End of See also:calendar year, the See also:remainder being taken to the 31st of March, the end of See also:financial year. 2 Approximate number of spindles. Average per year from 1828 to 1833-34 „ 1832-33 1837-38 1838-39 „ 1842-43 1843-44 ,, 1847-48 1848-49 ,, 1852-53 11 1857-58 1862-63 1867-68 1872-73. 1877-78 1853-54 „ 1858-59 „ 1863-64 „ 1868-69 „ 1873-74 „ 1878-79 „ 1882-83 1883-84 ,, 1887-88 1888-89 ,, 1892-93 1897-98 1898-99 ,, 1902-03 1903-04 ,, 1905-06 1893-94 „ The subjoined table shows the extent of the trade from an agricultural, as well as from a manufacturing, point of view. The difference between the See also:production and the exports represents the native consumption, for very little jute is sent overland. The figures are taken to the 31st of March, the end of the Indian financial year. Year. Acres under Production Exports by cultivation. in cwt. See also:sea in cwt. 1893 2,181,334 20,419,000 10,537,512 1894 2,230,570 17,863,000 8,690,133 1895 2,275,335 21,944,400 12,976,791 1896 2,248,593 19,825,000 12,266,781 1897 2,215,105 20,418,000 11,464,356 1898 2,159,908 24,425,000 15,023,325 1899 1,690,739 19,050,000 9,864,545 1900 2,070,668 19,329,000 9,725,245 1901 2,102,236 23,307,000 12,414,552 1902 2,278,205 26,564,000 14,755,115 1903 2,142,700 23,489,000 13,036,486 1904 2,275,050 25,861,000 13,721,447 1905 2,899,700 26,429,000 12,875,312 1906 3,181,600 29,945,000 14,5$1,307 Manufacture.—In their See also:general features the spinning and weaving of jute fabrics do not differ essentially as to machinery and processes from those employed in the manufacture of hemp and heavy flax goods. Owing, however, to the woody and brittle nature of the fibre, it has to undergo a preliminary treatment See also:peculiar to itself. The pioneers of the jute industry, who did not understand this See also:necessity, or rather who did not know how the woody and brittle character of the fibre could be remedied, were greatly perplexed by the difficulties they had to encounter, the fibre spinning badly into a hard, rough and hairy yarn owing to the splitting and breaking of the fibre. This peculiarity of jute, coupled also with the fact that the machinery on which it was first spun, although quite suitable for the stronger and more elastic fibres for which it was designed, required certain modifications to suit it to the weaker jute, was the cause of many annoyances and failures in the early days of the trade. The first process in the manufacture of jute is termed batching. Batch setting is the first part of this operation; it consists of selecting the different kinds or qualities of jute for any predetermined kind of yarn. The number of bales for a batch seldom exceeds twelve, in-See also:deed it is generally about six, and of these there may be three, four or even more varieties or marks. The " streaks " 1 or " heads " of jute as they come from the See also:bale are in a hard See also:condition in consequence of having been subjected to a high hydraulic pressure during baling; it 1s therefore necessary to soften them before any further process is entered. The streaks are sometimes partly softened or crushed by means of a See also:steam See also:hammer during the process of opening the bale, then taken to the " strikers-up " where the different varieties are selected and hung on pins, and then taken to the jute softening machine. The more general practice, however, is to employ what is termed a " bale opener," or " jute crusher." The essential parts of one type of bale opener are three specially shaped rollers, the peripheries of which contain a number of small knobs. Two of these rollers are supported in the same See also:horizontal See also:plane of the framework, while the third or top roller is kept in close contact by means of weights and springs acting on each end of the arbor. Another type of machine termed the three pair roller jute opener is illustrated in fig. 3. The layers from the different bales are laid upon the feed cloth which carries them up to the rollers, between which the layers are crushed and partly separated. The proximity of the weighted roller or rollers to the fixed ones depends upon the ' Also in the forms " streek," " strick " or " strike," as in See also:Chaucer, Cant. Tales, See also:Prologue 676, where the Pardoner's hair is compared with a " strike of flax." The See also:term is also used of a handful of hemp or other fibre, and is one of the many technical applications of " strike " or " streak," which etymologically are cognate words.thickness of material passing through the machine. The fibre is delivered by what is called the delivery cloth, and the hatcher usually selects small streaks of about z lb to 2 lb See also:weight each and passes them on to the attendant or feeder of the softening machine. These small streaks are now laid as regularly as possible upon the feed-cloth of the softening machine, a general view of which is shown in fig. 4. The fibre passes between a See also:series of fluted rollers, each pair of which is kept in contact by See also:spiral springs as shown in the figure. The standard number of pairs is sixty-three, but different lengths obtain. There is also a difference in the structure of the F1c. 3.-Jute Opener. (The three See also:machines shown in this See also:article are made by See also:Urquhart, See also:Lindsay & Co., Ltd., Dundee.) flutes, some being straight, and others spiral, and each pair may or may not contain the same number of flutes. The springs allow the top rollers of each pair to rise as the material passes through the machine. See also:Advantage is taken of this slight upward and downward See also:movement of the top rollers to automatically regulate the flow of water and oil upon the material. The apparatus for this See also:function is placed immediately over the 11th and 12th rollers of the softening machine and an See also:idea of its construction may be gathered from fig. 5. In many cases the water and oil are applied by less automatic, but equally effective, means. The main object is to see that the liquids are distributed evenly while the fibre is passing through, and to stop the See also:supply when the machine stops or when no fibre is passing. The uniform moistening of the fibre in this machine facilitates the subsequent operations, indeed the introduction of this preliminary process (originally by hand) constituted the first important step in the practical See also:solution of the difficulties of jute spinning. The relative quantities of oil and water depend upon the quality of the batch. Sometimes both See also:whale and See also:mineral See also:oils are used, but in most cases the whale oil is omitted. About 1 to 14 gallons of oil is the usual amount given per bale of 400 lb of jute, while the quantity of water per bale varies from 3 to 7 gallons. The delivery attendants remove the streaks, give them a twist to facilitate future handling, and place t Fs . 4.-Jute Softening Machine. them on what are termed jute barrows. The streaks are now handed over to the cutters who cut off the roots, and finally the material is allowed to remain for twelve to twenty-four See also:hours to allow the mixture of oil and water to thoroughly spread over the fibre. When the moisture has spread sufficiently, the material is taken to the " breaker card," the first machine in the preparing department. A certain weight of jute, termed a " dollop," is laid upon the feed cloth for each revolution of the latter. The fibre, which should be arranged on the sheet as evenly as possible, is carried up by the feed cloth and passes between the feed roller and the See also:shell on to the large See also:cylinder. This cylinder, which has a high surface See also:speed, carries part of the fibre towards the workers and strippers; the surface speed of the workers being much slower than that of the cylinder. The pins in the two rollers oppose each other, those of the workers being " back-set," and this arrangement, combined with the relative See also:angle of the pins, and the difference in the surface speeds of the two rollers, results in part of the fibre' being broken and carried round by the worker towards the stripper. This, as its name implies, strips the fibre off the worker, and carries it round to the cylinder. The pins of the stripper and cylinder point in the same direction, but since the surface speed of the cylinder is much greater than the surface speed of the stripper, it follows that the fibre is combed between the two, and that part is carried forward by the cylinder to be reworked. The strippers and workers are in pairs, of which there may be two or more. After passing the last pair of workers and strippers the fibre is carried forward towards the doffing roller, the pins of which are back-set, and the fibre is removed from the cylinder by the doffer, from which it passes between the drawing and pressing rollers into the conductor, and finally between the delivery and pressing rollers into the sliver can. It may be mentioned that more or less breaking takes place between each pair of rollers, the pins of which are opposed, and that combing and drawing out obtains between those rollers with pins pointing in the same direction. The ratio of the surface speeds of the drawing roller and the feed roller is termed the draft: surface speed of drawing roller =draft. surface speed of feed roller In this machine the draft is usually about thirteen. The sliver from the can of the breaker card may be wound into balls, or it may be taken direct to the finisher card. In the latter method from eight to fifteen cans are placed behind the feed rollers, and all the slivers from these cans are united before they emerge from the machine. The main difference between a breaker card and a finisher card is that the latter is fitted with finer pins, that it contains two doffing rollers, and that it usually possesses a greater number of pairs of workers and strippers—a full circular finisher card having four sets. After the fibre has been thoroughly carded by the above machines, the cans containing the sliver from the finisher card are taken to the first drawing See also:frame. A very common method is to let four slivers run into one sliver at the first drawing, then two slivers from the first drawing are run into one sliver at the second drawing frame. There are several types of drawing frames, e.g. push-See also:bar or slide, rotary, spiral, See also:ring, open-See also:link or See also:chain, the spiral being generally used for the second drawing. All, however, perform the same function, viz., combing out the fibres and thus laying them parallel, and in addition drawing out the sliver. The designation of the machine indicates the particular method in which the gill pins are moved. These pins are much finer than those of the breaker and finisher See also:cards, consequently the fibres are more thoroughly separated. The draft in the first drawing varies from three to five, while that in the second drawing is usually five to seven. It is easy to see that a certain amount of draft, or drawing out of the sliver, is necessary, otherwise the various doublings would cause the sliver to emerge thicker and thicker from each machine. The doublings See also:play a very important part in the See also:appearance of the ultimate rove and yarn, for the chief reason for doubling threads or slivers is to minimize irregularities of thickness and of colour in the material. In an ordinary case, the total doublings in jute from the breaker card to the end of the second drawing is ninety-six: 12 X 4 X 2 = 96; and if the slivers were made thinner and more of them used the ultimate result would naturally be improved. The final preparing process is that of roving. In thk operation there is no doubling of the slivers, but each sliver passes separately through the machine, from the can to the spindle, is dr wn out to about eight times its length, and receives a small amount of twist to strengthen it, in order that it may be successfully wound upon the roving bobbin by the flyer. The chief piece of mechanism in the roving frame is the gearing known as the " See also:differential See also:motion." It works in See also:conjunction with the disk and See also:scroll, the cones, or the expanding See also:pulley, to impart an intermittingly variable speed to the bobbin (each layer of the bobbin has its own particular speed which is See also:constant for the full See also:traverse, but each change of direction of the builder is accompanied by a See also:quick change of speed to the bobbin). It is essential that the bobbin should have such a motion.; because the delivery of the sliver and the speed of the flyer are constant for a given size of rove, whereas the layers of rove on the bobbin increase in length as the bobbin fills. In the jute roving frame the bobbin is termed the follower," because its revolutions per See also:minute are fewer than those of the flyer. Each layer of rove increases the See also:diameter of the material on the bobbin shank; hence, at the beginning of each layer, the speed of the bobbin must be increased, and kept at this increased speed for the whole traverse from top to bottom or See also:vice versa. Let R = the revolutions per second of the flyer; r = the revolutions per second of the bobbin; d = the diameter of bobbin See also:shaft plus the material; L = the length of sliver delivered per second; then (R — r) d . it = L. In the above expression R, it and L are constant, therefore as d increases the term (R—r) must decrease; this can happen only when r is increased, that is, when the bobbin revolves quicker. It is easy to see from the above expression that if the bobbin were the " See also:leader its speed would have to decrease as it filled. The builder, which receives its motion from the disk and scroll, from the cones, or from the expanding pulley, has also an intermittingly variable speed. It begins at a maximum speed when the bobbin is empty, is constant for each layer, but decreases as the bobbin fills. The rove yarn is now ready for the spinning frame, where a further draft of about eight is given. The principles of jute spinning are similar to those of dry spinning for flax. For very heavy jute yarns the spinning frame is not used—the desired amount of twist being given at the roving frame. The See also:count of jute yarn is based upon the weight in pounds of 14,400 yds., such length receiving the name of ' spyndle." The finest yarns weigh 21 lb to 3 lb per spyndle, but the commonest kinds are 7 Ib, 8 lb, 9 lb and lo lb per spyndle. The sizes rise in pounds up to about 20 lb, then by 2 lb up to about 5o lb per spyndle, with much larger jumps above this weight. It is not uncommon to find 200 lb to 300 lb rove yarn, while the weight occasionally reaches 450 lb per spyndle. The different sizes of yarn are extensively used in a large variety of fabrics, sometimes alone, sometimes in conjunction with other fibres, e.g. with worsted in the various kinds of carpets, with cotton in tapestries and See also:household cloths, with See also:line and tow yarns for the same fabrics and for paddings, &c., and with See also:wool for See also:horse clothing. The yarns are capable of being dyed brilliant See also:colours, but, unfortunately, the colours are not very, fast to light. The fibre can also be prepared to imitate human hair with remarkable closeness, and advantage of this is largely taken in making See also:stage wigs. For detailed See also:information regarding jute, the cloths made from it and the machinery used, see the following works: See also:Watts's Dictionary of the Economic Products of India; Royle's Fibrous Plants of India; See also:Sharp's Flax, Tow and Jute Spinning; Leggatt's Jute Spinning; Woodhouse and Milne's Jute and Linen Weaving; and Woodhouse and Milne's Textile See also:Design: Pure and Applied. (T. Wo.) JtTERBOG, or GITERBOG, a town of Germany in the Prussian See also:province of See also:Brandenburg, on the Nuthe, 39 M. S.W. of See also:Berlin, at the junction of the main lines of railway from Berlin to See also:Dresden and See also:Leipzig. Pop. (1900), 7407. The town is surrounded by a See also:medieval See also:wall, with three gateways, and contains two See also:Protestant churches, of which that of St See also:Nicholas (14th century) is remarkable for its three fine aisles. There are also a See also:Roman See also:Catholic church, an old town-See also: Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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