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See also:FRANCOIS N .). Little was done to improve the finances, and the See also:assignats continued to fall in value. But the See also:Directory was sustained by the military successes of the See also:year 1796. See also:Hoche again pacified La See also:Vendee. See also:Bonaparte's victories in See also:Italy more than compensated for the reverses of See also:Jourdan and See also:Moreau in See also:Germany. The See also: It gave a See also:majority to the constitutional party. Among the directors the See also:lot See also:fell on Letourneur to retire, and he was succeeded by See also:Barthelemy, an eminent diplomatist, who allied himself with See also:Carnot. The See also:political disabilities imposed upon the relatives of emigres were repealed. Priests who would declare their submission to the Republic were restored to their rights as citizens. It seemed likely that peace would be made and that moderate men would gain See also:power. See also:Barras, See also:Rewbell and La Revelliere-Lepeaux then sought help from the armies. Although Royalists formed but a See also:petty fraction of the majority, they raised the alarm that coup d'etat it was seeking to restore See also:monarchy and undo the See also:work of the i8th Fructidor. of the Revolution. Hoche, then in command of the See also:army of the Sambre and See also:Meuse, visited See also:Paris and sent troops. Bonaparte sent See also:General See also:Augereau, who executed the coup d'etat of the 18th Fructidor (See also:September 4). The councils were purged, the elections in See also:forty-nine departments were can- celled, and many deputies and other men of See also:note were arrested. Some of them, including Barthelemy, were deported to See also:Cayenne. Carnot made See also:good his See also:escape. The two vacant places in the Directory were filled by See also:Merlin of See also:Douai and Francois of Neuf- See also:chateau. Then the See also:government frankly returned to Jacobin methods. The See also:law against the relatives of emigres was re- enacted, and military tribunals were established to condemn emigres who should return to France. The nonjuring priests were again persecuted. Many hundreds were either sent to Cayenne or imprisoned in the hulks of Re and See also:Oleron. La Revelliere Lepeaux seized the opportunity to propagate his See also:religion. Many churches were turned into Theophilanthropic temples. The government strained its power to secure the recognition of the decadi as the See also:day of public See also:worship and the non-observance of See also:Sunday. See also:Liberty of the See also:press ceased. See also:Newspapers were confiscated and journalists were deported wholesale. It was proposed to banish from France all members of the old noblesse. Although the proposal was dropped, they were all declared to be foreigners and were forced to obtain See also:naturalization if they would enjoy the rights of other citizens. A formal See also:bankruptcy of the See also:state, the cancelling of two-thirds of the See also:interest on the public See also:debt, crowned the misgovernment of this disastrous See also:time. In the See also:spring of 1798 not only a new third of the legislature had to be chosen, but the places of the members expelled by the revolution of Fructidor had to be filled. The constitutional party had been rendered helpless, and the See also:mass of the See also:electors were in-different. But among the See also:Jacobins themselves there had arisen an extreme party hostile to the directors. With the support of many who were not Jacobins but detested the government, it bade See also:fair to gain a majority. Before the new deputies could take their seats the directors forced through the councils the law of the 22nd Floreal (May II), annulling or perverting the elections in See also:thirty departments and excluding forty-eight deputies by name. Even this coup d'etat did not secure See also:harmony between the executive and the legislature. In the councils the directors were loudly charged with corruption and misgovernment. The retirement of Francois of See also:Neufchateau and the choice of See also:Treilhard as his successor made no difference in the position of the Directory. While France was thus inwardly convulsed, its rulers were doubly See also:bound to See also:husband the See also:national strength and practise moderation towards other states. Since See also:December 1797 a See also:congress had been sitting at Rastadt to regulate the future of Germany. That it should be brought to a successful conclusion was of the utmost import for France. But the directors were driven by self-interest to new adventures abroad. Bonaparte was resolved not to sink into obscurity, and the directors were anxious to keep him as far as possible from Paris; they therefore sanctioned the expedition to See also:Egypt which deprived the Republic of its best army and most renowned See also:captain. Coveting the treasures of See also:Bern, they sent See also:Brune to invade See also:Switzerland and remodel its constitution; in revenge for the See also:murder of General Duphot, they sent See also:Berthier to invade the papal states and erect the See also:Roman Republic; they occupied and virtually annexed See also:Piedmont. In all these countries they organized such an effective pillage that the French became universally hateful. As the armies were far below the strength required by the policy of unbounded conquest and rapine, the first permanent law of See also:conscription was passed in the summer of 1798. The See also:attempt to enforce it caused a revolt of the peasants in the Belgian departments. The priests were made responsible and some eight thousand were condemned in a mass to See also:deportation, although much the greater See also:part escaped by the See also:goodwill of the See also:people. Few soldiers were obtained by the conscription, for the government was as weak as it was tyrannical.
Under these circumstances See also:Nelson's victory of See also:Aboukir (1st of August), which gave the See also:British full command of the Mediterranean and secluded Bonaparte in Egypt, was the See also:signal for a second See also:coalition. Naples, Austria, See also:Russia and The
second
See also:Turkey joined See also:Great See also:Britain against France. See also: But the consequent See also:dispersion of their weak forces only exposed them to greater peril. At See also:home the Directory was in a most See also:critical position. In the elections of April 1799 a large number of Jacobins gained seats. A little later Rewbell retired. It was imperative to fill his See also:place with a See also:man of ability and See also:influence. The choice fell upon Sieyes, who had kept aloof from See also:office and retained not only his immeasurable self-conceit but the respect of the public. Sieyes See also:felt that the Directory was bankrupt of reputation, and he intended to be far more than a See also:mere member of a See also:board. He hoped to concentrate power in his own hands,to bridle the Jacobins,and to remodel the constitution. With the help of Barras he proceeded to rid himself of the other directors. An irregularity having been discovered in Treilhard's election, he retired, and his place was taken by See also:Gohier. Merlin of Douai and La Revelliere Lepeaux were driven to resign in See also:June. They were succeeded by See also:Moulin and See also:Ducos. The three new directors were so insignificant that they could give no trouble, but for the same See also:reason they were of little service.
Such a government was See also:ill fitted to See also:cope with the dangers then gathering See also:round France. The directors having resolved on the French offensive in Germany, the French crossed the Rhine reverses. See also:early in March, but were defeated by the See also:archduke The Direc- See also: The Jacobin See also:Club was reopened and became once more the See also:focus of disorder. The Jacobin press renewed the See also:licence of See also:Hebert and See also:Marat. Never since the outbreak of the Revolution had the public temper been so gloomy and desponding. In this extremity Sieyes See also:chose as See also:minister of See also:police the old Terrorist See also:Fouche, who best understood how to See also:deal with his brethren. Fouche closed the Jacobin Club and deported a number of journalists. But like his predecessors Sieyes felt that for the revolution which he meditated he must have the help of a soldier. As his man of See also:action he chose General See also:Joubert, one of the most distinguished among French See also:officers. Joubert was sent to restore the See also:fortune of the See also:war in Italy. At Novi on the 15th of August he encountered Suvarov. He was killed at the outset of the See also:battle and his men were defeated. After this disaster the French held scarcely anything See also:south of the See also:Alps See also:save See also:Genoa. The Russian and Austrian governments then agreed to drive the enemy out of Switzerland and to invade France from the See also:east. At the same time See also: Feeling his See also:powers equal to such an office he only hesitated about the means of attainment. At first he thought of becoming a director; finally he decided upon a See also:partnership with Sieyes. They resolved to end the actual government by a fresh coup d'etat. Means were to be taken for removing the councils from Paris to St See also:Cloud, where pressure could more easily be applied. Then the councils would be induced to See also:decree a provisional government by three consuls and the See also:appointment of a See also:commission to revise the constitution. The pretext for this irregular proceeding was to be a vast Jacobin See also:conspiracy. Perhaps the gravest obstacles were to be expected from the army. Of the generals, some, like Jourdan, were honest republicans; others, like Bernadotte, believed themselves capable of governing France. With perfect subtlety Bonaparte worked on the feelings of all and kept his own intentions See also:secret. On the See also:morning of the 18th See also:Brumaire (See also:November 9) the Ancients, to whom that power belonged, decreed the transference of the councils to St Cloud. Of the directors, Sieyes and his friend Ducos had arranged to resign; Barras was cajoled and bribed into resigning; Gohier and See also:Moulins, who were intractable, found themselves imprisoned in the See also:Luxemburg See also:palace and helpless. So far all had gone well. But when the councils met at St Cloud on the following day, the majority of the Five Hundred showed themselves See also:bent on resistance, and even the Ancients gave signs of wavering. When Bonaparte addressed the Ancients, he lost his self-See also:possession and made a deplorable figure. When he appeared among the Five Hundred, they fell upon him with such fury that he was hardly rescued by his officers. A See also:motion to outlaw him was only baffled by the audacity of the See also:president, his See also:brother Lucien. At length driven to undisguised violence, he sent in his grenadiers, who turned out the deputies. Then the Ancients passed a decree which adjourned the Councils for three months, appointed Bonaparte, Sieyes and Ducos provisional consuls, and named the Legislative Commission. Some tractable members of the Five Hundred were afterwards swept up and served to give these See also:measures the See also:confirmation of their See also:House. Thus the Directory and the Councils came to their unlamented end. A shabby See also:compound of See also:brute force and imposture, the 18th Brumaire was nevertheless condoned, See also:nay applauded, by the French nation. Weary of revolution, men sought no more than to be wisely and firmly governed. Although the French Revolution seemed to contemporaries a See also:total break in the See also:history of France, it was really far otherwise. Its results were momentous and durable in proportion Qenera/ as they were the outcome of causes which had been estimate of working See also:long. In France there had been no historic the Revel preparation for political freedom. The See also:desire for such cation. freedom was in the See also:main confined to the upper classes. During the Revolution it was constantly baffled. No See also:Assembly after the states-general was freely elected and none deliberated in freedom. After the Revolution Bonaparte established a monarchy even more See also:absolute than the monarchy of See also: The new fiscal system taxed men according to their means and raised no obstacle to commerce within the national boundaries. Every calling and profession was made See also:free to all French citizens, and in the public service the principle of an open career for See also:talent was adopted. Religious disabilities vanished, and there was well-nigh See also:complete liberty of thought. It was because See also:Napoleon gave a See also:practical See also:form to these achievements of the Revolution and ensured the public order necessary to their continuance that the majority of Frenchmen endured so long the fearful sacrifices which his policy exacted. That a revolution largely inspired by generous and humane feeling should have issued in such havoc and such crimes is a See also:paradox which astounded spectators and still perplexes the historian. Something in the See also:cruelty of the French Revolution may he ascribed to national See also:character. From the time when Burgundians and Armagnacs strove for dominion down to the last insurrection of Paris, civil discord in France has always been cruel. More, however, was due to the total See also:dissolution of society which followed the See also:meeting of the states-general. In the course of the Revolution we can discover no well-organized party, no governing mind. See also:Mirabeau had the stuff of a great statesman, and See also:Danton was capable of statesmanship. But these men were not followed or obeyed save by See also:accident or for a moment. Those who seemed to govern were usually the See also:sport of See also:chance, often the victims of their colleagues. Neither Royalists nor Feuillants nor Girondins had the See also:instinct of government. In the chaotic state of France all ferocious and destructive passions found ample See also:scope. The same conditions explain the See also:triumph of the Jacobins. Devoid of See also:wisdom and virtue in the highest sense, they at least understood how power might be seized and kept. The Reign of Terror was the expedient of a party which knew its weakness and unpopularity. It was not necessary either to secure the lasting benefits of the Revolution or to save France from dismemberment; for nine Frenchmen out of ten were agreed on both of these points and were ready to See also:lay down their lives for the national cause.
In the history of the French Revolution the influence which it exerted upon the surrounding countries demands See also:peculiar See also:attention. The French professed to act upon principles of universal authority, and from an early date they began to seek converts outside their own limits. The effect was slight upon England, which had already secured most of the reforms desired by the French, and upon Spain, where the bulk of the people were entirely submissive to See also: Wherever the victorious French extended their dominion, they remodelled institutions in the French manner. Their sway proved so oppressive that the very classes which had welcomed them with most fervour soon came to long for their See also:expulsion. But revolutionary ideas kept their See also:charm. • Under Napoleon the essential part of the changes made by the Republic was preserved in these countries also. Moreover the effacement of old boundaries, the overthrow of ancestral governments, and the invocation, however hollow, of the See also:sovereignty of the people, awoke national feeling which had slumbered long and prepared the struggle for national See also:union and See also:independence in the 19th See also:century. See also FRANCE, sections History and Law and Institutions. For the leading figures iii the Revolution see their See also:biographies under See also:separate headings. Particular phases, facts, and institutions of the See also:period are also separately dealt with, e.g. ASSIGNATS, CONVENTION, THE NATIONAL, JACOBINS. The See also:condition of France and the state of public See also:opinion at the beginning of the Revolution may be studied in the printed collections of Cahiers. The Cahiers were the statements of grievances See also:drawn up for the guidance of deputies to the States-General by those who had elected them. In every bailliage and senechaussee each See also:estate See also:drew up its own cahier and the cahiers of the Third Estate were condensed from separate cahiers drawn up by each See also:parish in the See also:district. Thus the cahiers of the Third Estate number many thousands, the greater part of which have not yet been printed. Among the collections printed we may mention See also:Les Elections et les cahiers de Paris 169 en 1789, by C. L. Chassin (4 vols., Paris, 1888) ; Cahiers de plaintes et doleances See also:des paroisses de la See also:province de See also:Maine, by A. Bellee and V. Duchemin (4 vols., Le Mans, 1881–1893); Cahiers de doleances de 1789 Bans le See also:department du Pas-de-See also:Calais, by H. Loriquet (2 vols., See also:Arras, 1891); Cahiers des paroisses et communautes du bailliage d'See also:Autun, by A. Charmasse (Autun, 1895). New collections are printed from time to time. A more general collection of cahiers than any above named is given in vols. i.-vi. of the Archives perlementaires. The cahiers must not be read in a spirit of absolute faith, as they were influenced by certain See also:models circulated at the time of the elections and by popular excitement, but they remain an authority of the utmost value and a mine of See also:information as to old France. Reference should also be made to the See also:works of travellers who visited France at the outbreak of the Revolution. Among these See also:Arthur See also:Young's Travels in France during the years 1787,1 788 and 1789 (2 vols., See also:Bury St See also:Edmunds, 1792–1794) are peculiarly instructive. For the history of the Assemblies during the Revolution a main authority is their Proces verbaux or See also:Journals; those of the Constituent Assembly in 75 vols., those of the Legislative Assembly in 16 vols. ; those of the Convention in 74 vols., and those of the Councils under the Directory in 99 vols. See also the Archives perlementaires edited by J. Mavidal and E. See also:Laurent (Paris, 1867, and the following years) ; the Hisloire parlementaire de la Revolution, by P. J. B. See also:Buchez and P. C. Roux (Paris, 1838), and the Histoire de la Revolution See also:par deux amis de la liberie (Paris, 1792–1803). The newspapers, of which a few have been mentioned in the See also:text, were numerous. They are useful chiefly as illustrating the ideas and passions of the time, for they give comparatively little information as to facts and that little is peculiarly inaccurate. The ablest of the Royalist journals was See also:Mallet du See also:Pan's Mercure de France. See also:Pamphlets of the Revolution period number many thousands. Such pamphlets as See also:Mounier's Nouvelles Observations sur les Etals-Generaux de France and Sieyes's Qu'est-ce que le Tiers Etat had a notable influence on opinion. The richest collections of Revolution pamphlets are in the Bibliotheque Nationale of Paris and in the British Museum. The contemporary See also:memoirs, &c., already published are numerous and fresh ones are always coming forth. A few of the best known and most useful are, for the Constituent Assembly, the memoirs of See also:Bailly, of Ferrieres, of See also:Malouet. The See also:Correspondence of Mirabeau with the See also:Count de la See also:Merck, edited by Bacourt (3 vols., Paris, 1851), is especially valuable. See also:Dumont's Recollections of Mirabeau and the See also:Diary and Letters of Gouverneur See also:Morris give the impressions of foreigners with peculiar advantages for observing. For the Legislative Assembly and the Convention the memoirs of Madame See also:Roland, of See also:Bertrand de Molleville, of See also:Barbaroux, of See also:Buzot, of Louvet, of See also:Dumouriez are instructive. For the Directory the memoirs of Barras, of La Revelliere Lepeaux and of See also:Thibaudeau deserve mention. The memoirs of See also:Lafayette are useful. Those of Talleyrand are singularly barren, the result, no doubt, of deliberate suppression. The memoirs of the marquise de La Rochejacquelein are important for the war of La Vendee. The most notable Jacobins have seldom See also:left memoirs, but the works of See also:Robespierre and St Just enable us to form a clearer conception of the authors. The correspondence of the count of See also:Mercy-Argenteau, the imperial See also:ambassador, with See also:Joseph II. and Kaunitz, and the correspondence of Mallet du Pan with the See also:court of See also:Vienna, are also instructive. But the contemporary literature of the French Revolution requires to be read in an unusually critical spirit. At no other See also:historical crisis have passions been more fiercely excited; at none have shameless disregard of truth and See also:blind credulity been more See also:common. Among later works based on these See also:original materials the first place belongs to general histories. In French Louis See also:Blanc's Histoire de la Revolution (12 vols., Paris, 1847–1862), and See also:Michelet's Histoire de la Revolution Francaise (9 vols., Paris, 1847–1853), are the most elaborate of the older works. .Michelet's See also:book is marked by great eloquence and power. In H. See also:Taine's Origines de la France contemporaine (Paris, 1876–1894) three volumes are devoted to the Revolution. They show exceptional talent and See also:industry, but their value is impaired by the spirit of system and by strong prepossessions. F. A. M. See also:Mignet's Histoire de la Revolution Francaise (2 vols., Paris, 1861), See also:short and devoid of See also:literary charm. has the merits of learning and See also:judgment and is still useful. F. A. See also:Aulard's Histoire politique de la Revolution Frangaise (Paris, 1901) is a most valuable precis of political history, based on deep knowledge and lucidly set forth, although not free from See also:bias. The See also:volume on the Revolution in See also:Lavisse and See also:Rambaud's Histoire generale de l'See also:Europe (Paris, 1896) is the work of distinguished scholars using the latest information. In See also:English, general histories of the Revolution are few. See also:Carlyle's famous work, published in 1837, is more of a See also:prose epic than a history, omitting all detail which would not heighten the imaginative effect and tinged by all the favourite ideas of the author. Some fifty years later H. M. See also:Stephens published the first (1886) and second (1892) volumes of a History of the French Revolution. They are marked by solid learning and contain much information. Volume viii. of the See also:Cambridge See also:Modern History, published in 1904, contains a general survey of the Revolution. The most notable German work is H. von See also:Sybel's Geschichte der Revolutionszeit (5 vols., See also:Stuttgart, 1853–1879). It is strongest in those parts which relate to See also:international affairs and See also:foreign policy. There is an English See also:translation. None of the general histories of the Revolution above named is really satisfactory. The immense mass of material has not yet been thoroughly sifted; and the passions of that See also:age still disturb the judgment of the historian. More successful have been the attempts to treat particular aspects of the Revolution. The foreign relations of France during the Revolution have been most ably unravelled by A. See also:Sorel in L'Europe et la Revolution Francaise (8 vols., Paris, 1885-1904) carrying the See also:story down to the See also:settlement of Vienna. Five volumes See also:cover the years 1789-1799. The See also:financial history of the Revolution has been traced by C. Gomel, Histoire fnanciere de l'Assemblee Constituante (2 vols., Paris, 1897), and R. Stourm, Les Finances de l'Ancien Regime et de la Revolution (2 vols., Paris, 1885). The relations of Church and State are sketched in E. See also:Pressense's L'Eglise et la Revolution Francaise (Paris, 1889). The general legislation of the period has been discussed by Ph. Sagnac, La Legislation civile de la Revolution Francaise (Paris, 1898). The best work upon the social See also:life of the period is the Histoire de la societe francaise sous la Revolution, by E. and J. de See also:Goncourt (Paris, 1889). For military history see A. See also:Duruy, L'Armee royale en 1789 (Paris, 1888) ; E. de Hauterive, L'Armie sous la Revolution, 1789-1794 (Paris, 1894) ; A. Chuquet, Les Guerres de la Revolution (Paris, 1886, &c.). See also the memoirs and biographies of the distinguished soldiers of the Republic and See also:Empire, too numerous for See also:citation here. Modern lives of the principal actors in the Revolution are numerous. Among the most important are Memoires de Mirabeau, by L. de Montigny (Paris, 1834) ; Les Mirabedu, by L. de Lomenie (Paris, 1889-1891); H. L. de Lanzac de Laborie's See also:Jean Joseph Mounier (Paris, 1889) ; B. Mallet's Mallet du Pan and the French Revolution (See also:London, 1902) ; Robinet's Danton (Paris, 1889) ; Hamel's Histoire de Robespierre (Paris, 1865-1867) and Histoire de St-Just (2 vols., See also:Brussels, 186o) ; A. Bigeon, Sieyes (Paris, 1893) ; Memoirs of Carnal, by his son (2 vols., Paris, 1861-1864). For See also:fuller information see M. See also:Tourneux, Les See also:Sources bibliographiques de l'histoire de la Revolution Francaise (Paris, 1898, etc.), and Bibliographic de l'histoire de Paris See also:pendant la Revolution (Paris, 189o, etc.). (F. C. M.) French Republican See also:Calendar.—Among the changes made during the Revolution was the substitution of a new calendar, usually called the revolutionary or republican calendar, for the prevailing Gregorian system. Something of the sort had been suggested in 1785 by a certain Riboud, and a definite See also:scheme had been promulgated by See also:Pierre Sylvain Marechal (1750-1803) in his Almanach des honnetes gens (1788). The See also:objects which the See also:advocates of a new calendar had in view were to strike ablow at the clergy and to See also:divorce all calculations of time from the See also:Christian associations with which they were loaded, in short, to abolish the Christian year; and enthusiasts were already speaking of " the first year of liberty " and " the first year of the republic " when the national convention took up the See also:matter in 1793. The business of See also:drawing up the new calendar was en-trusted to the president of the See also:committee of public instruction, Charles See also: Beginning with the new year on the 22nd of September the autumn months were Vendemiaire, the month of vintage, Brumaire, the months of See also:fog, and Frimaire, AN II. AN III. AN IV. AN V. AN VI. AN VII. AN VIII. AN IX. 1793-1794• 1794-1795. 1795-1796. 1796-1797. 1797-1798. 1798—1799. 1799-1800. 1800-18ol. I Vendemiaire 22 See also:Sept. 1793 22 Sept. 1794 23 Sept. 1795 22 Sept. 1796 22 Sept. 1797 22 Sept. 1798 23 Sept. 1799 23 Sept. 'Soo I Brumaire . 22 Oct. „ 23 Oct. 22 Oct. „ 22 Oct.,, 22 Oct., 23 Oct. „ 23 Oct. ,, 22 Oct. „ i Frimaire . 21 Nov. „ 21 Nov.,, 22 Nov. „ 21 Nov. „ 21 Nov. „ 21 Nov. „ 22 Nov. „ 22 Nov. , I NivBse 21 Dec. 21 Dec. 22 Dec. 21 21 Dec. 21 Dec. 22 22 Dec. „ Dec. Dec. I PluviBse 20 Janv. 1794 20 Janv. 1795 21 J anv. 1796 20 Janv. 1797 20 Janv. 1798 o Janv. 1799 21 J anv. 1800 21 Janv. 1801 I Ventbse 19 Fevr. „ 19 Fevr. „ 20 Fevr. „ 19 Fevr. „ 19 Fev. „ 20 20 Fev. 19 Fev. „ Fev. „ i Germinal . 21 See also:Mars „ 21 Mars „ 21 Mars „ 21 Mars „ 21 Mars „ 21 Mars „ 22 Mars „ 22 Mars 1 Floreal 20 Avr. „ 20 Avr. „ 20 Avr. „ 20 Avr. „ 20 Avr. „ 20 Avr. „ 21 Avr. „ 21 Avr. „ 1 Prairial 20 See also:Mai „ 20 Mai „ 20 Mai „ 20 Mai „ 20 Mai „ 20 Mai „ 21 Mai „ 21 Mai „ 1 Messidor . 19 Juin „ 19 Juin „ 19 Juin „ 19 Juin „ 19 Juin „ 19 Juin „ 20 Juin „ 20 Juin „ I See also:Thermidor 19 Juil. „ 19 Juil. „ 19 Juil. „ 19 Juil. „ 19 Juil. „ 19 Juil. „ 20 Juil. „ 20 Juil. i Fructidor . 18 Aoflt „ 18 Aoflt „ 18 Aoflt „ 18 Aoflt „ 18 Aoflt „ 18 Aoflt „ 19 Aoflt „ 19 Aoflt I Sans-culottides 17 Sept. 1794 17 Sept. 1795 17 Sept. 1796 17 Sept. 1797 17 Sept. 1798 17 Sept. 1799 18 Sept. 'Soo 18 Sept. 1801 6 „ 22 „ „ 22 , AN X. AN XI. AN XII. AN XIII. AN XIV. 1801-1802. 1802-1803. 1803-1804. 1804-1805. 1805. 1 Vendemiaire 23 Septembre 18o1 23 Septembre 1802 24 Septembre 1803 23 Septembre 1804 23 Septembre 1805 1 Brumaire . . 23 Octobre „ 23 Octobre ,, 24 Octobre „ 23 Octobre , 23 Octobre „ I Frimaire . . . 22 Novembre „ 22 Novembre „ 23 Novembre „ 22 Novembre 22 Novembre 1 NivBse . . . 22 Decembre 22 Decembre , 23 Decembre , 22 Decembre , 22 Decembre I PluviBse . . . 21 Janvier 1802 21 Janvier 1803 22 Janvier 1804 21 Janvier 1805 1 VentBse . . . 20 Fevrier „ 20 Fevrier „ . 21 Fevrier II 20 Fevrier I Germinal. . . 22 Mars „ 22 Mars ,, 22 Mars ,, 22 Mars ,, I Floreal . . . 21 Avril „ 2I Avril i, 21 Avril ,, 21 Avril I Prairial . . . 21 Mai ,, 21 Mai ,, 21 Mai „ 21 Mai I Messidor . . 20 Juin 20 Juin 20 Juin 20 Juin I Thermidor . . . „ 20 illet ,, 20 Juilllet „ 20 Juillet 20 Juillet „ „ „ Fructidor . . 19 Aoflt ,, 19 Aoflt ,, 19 Aoflt ,, 19 Aoflt 1 Sans-culottides 18 Septembre 1802 18 Septembre 1803 18 Septembre 1804 18 Septembre 1805 6 ,, 23 ., ,, the month of See also:frost. The See also:winter months were Nivose, the snowy, Pluviose, the See also:rainy, and Ventose, the windy month; then followed the spring months, Germinal, the month of buds, Floreal, the month of See also:flowers, and Prairial, the month of meadows; and lastly the summer months, Messidor, the month of See also:reaping, Thermidor, the month of See also:heat, and Fructidor, the month of See also:fruit. To the days Fabre d'Eglantine gave names which retained the See also:idea of their numerical order, calling them Primedi, Duodi, &c., the last day of the ten, the day of rest, being named Decadi. The new order was soon in force in France and the new method was employed in all public documents, but it did not last many years. In September 1805 it was decided to restore the Gregorian calendar, and the republican one was officially discontinued on the 1st of January 1806. It will easily be seen that the connecting See also:link between the old and the new calendars is very slight indeed and that the expression of a date in one calendar in terms of the other is a matter of some difficulty. A See also:simple method of doing this, however, is afforded by the table on the preceding See also:page, which is taken from the See also:article by J. Dubourdieu in La Grande Encyclopedie. Thus Robespierre was executed on to Thermidor An II., i.e. the 28th of See also:July 1794. The insurrection of 12 Germinal An III. took place on the 1st of April 1795. The famous 18 Brumaire An VIII. fell on the 9th of November 1799, and the coup d'etat of 18 Fructidor An V. on the 4th of September 1797. For a complete See also:concordance of the Gregorian and the republican calendars see Stokvis, See also:Manuel d'histoire, tome iii. (See also:Leiden, 1889) ; also G. Villain, " Le Calendrier republicain," in La Revolution Fraaagaise for 1884–1885. (A. W. 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