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MEHEMET ALI (1769-1849)
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MEHEMET See also:ALI (1769-1849) , See also:pasha and afterwards See also:viceroy of See also:Egypt, was See also:born at See also:Kavala, a small seaport on the frontier of See also:Thrace and See also:Macedonia. His See also:father, an Albanian, was an See also:aga, a small See also:yeoman See also:farmer, and he himself lived in his native See also:town for many years as a See also:petty See also:official and trader in See also:tobacco. In 1798 he became second in command of a See also:regiment of bashi-bazouks, or See also:volunteers, recruited in his neighbourhood to serve against See also:Napoleon in Egypt. He took See also:part in the See also:battle of See also:Aboukir (See also:July 25, 1799), was driven into the See also:sea with the routed See also:Turks, and was saved from drowning by the See also:gig of the See also:British See also:admiral, See also:Sir See also:Sidney See also: The Wahhabi War, indeed, dragged on till 1818, when See also:Ibrahim (q.v.), the pasha's son, who in 1816 had driven the remnant of the Mamelukes into See also:Nubia, brought it to an end. This done, the pasha turned his See also:attention southward to the vast See also:country watered by the Upper See also:Nile. In 1820 the See also:oasis of See also:Siwa was subdued by his arms; in 1823 he laid the foundations of See also:Khartum. By this See also:time Mehemet Ali was the possessor of a powerful fleet and of an army of veterans disciplined and drilled by European officers. To obtain these See also:money had been necessary; and to raise money the pasha had instituted those See also:internal reforms " —the bizarre See also:system of See also:state monopolies and the showy experiments in new native See also:industries which are described in the See also:article Egypt (q.v.). The inherent viciousness of these expedients had,. however, not as yet been revealed by their inevitable results, and Mehemet Ali in the eyes of the See also:world was at once the most enlightened and the most powerful of the sultan's valis. To Mahmud II., whose whole policy was directed to strengthening'-the authority of the central power, this fact would have sufficed to make him distrust the pasha and See also:desire his overthrow; and it was sorely against his will that, in 1827, the See also:ill-success of his arms against the insurgent Greeks forced him to summon Mehemet Ali to his aid. The immediate See also:price was the pashalik of See also:Crete; in the event of the victory of the See also:Egyptian arms the pashaliks of See also:Syria and See also:Damascus were to fall to Mehemet Ali, that of the Morea to his son Ibrahim. The part played by Mehemet Ali in the See also:Greek War is described elsewhere (see See also:TURKEY: See also:History; See also:GREECE: History; GREEK See also:INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF; See also:home urging the See also:government to accept, and suggesting a See also:settlement of the Egyptian question which foreshadowed that of 1841. See also:Palmerston, however, did not See also:share See also:Canning's belief in the possible regeneration of Turkey; he held that an isolated intervention of See also:Great See also:Britain would mortally offend not only See also:Russia but See also:France, and that Mehemet Ali, disappointed of his ambitions, would find in France a support that would make him doubly dangerous.) In the autumn Sultan Mahmud, as a last See also:independent effort, despatched against Ibrahim the army which, under Reshid Pasha, had been engaged in pacifying See also:Albania. The result was the crowning victory of the Egyptians at See also:Konia (Dec. 21). The See also:news reached Constantinople at the same time as See also:Count See also:Muraviev arrived on a See also:special See also:mission from the See also:tsar. The See also:Russian offers were at once renewed of a See also:squadron of battleships and of a See also:land force for the See also:protection of the See also:capital. Efforts were made to See also:escape the See also:necessity of accepting the perilous aid. • See also:Ottoman agents, backed by letters from the French charge d'affaires, were sent to Mehemet Ali and to Ibrahim, to point out the imminence of Russian intervention and to offer modified terms. Muraviev himself went to See also:Alexandria, where, backed by the See also:Austrian See also:agent, Count Prokesch-Osten, he announced to the pasha the tsar's immutable hatred of rebels. Mehemet Ali merely protested the See also:complete loyalty of his intentions; Ibrahim, declaring that as a soldier he had no choice but to obey his father's orders, advanced to Afium-Karahissar and See also:Kutaiah, whence he wrote to the sultan asking his gracious permission to advance to See also:Brusa. He was at the See also:head of See also:ioo,000 men, well organized and flushed with victory; the Ottoman army survived only as demoralized See also:rabble. Panic seized the Seraglio; and at the beginning of See also:February the assistance of Russia was formally demanded. The representatives of France and Great Britain made every effort to secure a reversal of this fatal step; but, while they were threatening and promising, Russia was acting, and on the loth of February a Russian squadron entered the See also:Bosporus. In view of this it became necessary for the objecting See also:powers to take a new See also:line. The new French See also:ambassador, Admiral Roussin, had arrived on the 17th; he now, with the full concurrence of See also:Mandeville, the British charge d'affaires, persuaded the Porte to invite the Russians to withdraw, undertaking that France would secure the See also:acceptance by Mehemet Ali of the sultan's terms. A See also:period of suspense followed. The Russian squadron was detained by contrary winds, and before it could See also:sail See also:peremptory orders arrived from the tsar for it to remain until Ibrahim should have repassed the See also:Taurus mountains. Meanwhile, Mehemet Ali had scornfully rejected the offers of the Porte; he would be See also:con-See also:tent with nothing but the concession of his full demands—Syria, Icheli, See also:Aleppo, Damascus and See also:Adana. France and Great Britain now urged the sultan to yield, and in See also: The sultan's policy had been consistently directed to crushing the overgrown power of his vassals; in the See also:spring of 1831 two rebellious pashas, Hussein of Bosnia and Mustafa of See also:Scutari, had succumbed to his arms; and, since he was surrounded and counselled by the See also:personal enemies of the pasha of Egypt, it was likely that, so soon as he should feel himself strong enough, he would See also:deal in like manner with Mehemet All. It was to anticipate this peril that Mehemet All determined himself to open the struggle: on the 1st of See also:November 1831 a force of 9000 Egyptian See also:infantry and 2000 cavalry crossed the frontier into Syria and met at Jaffa the fleet which brought Ibrahim as See also:commander-in-See also:chief. The combined forces at once laid See also:siege to St See also:Jean d'See also:Acre. The stubborn resistance of the See also:garrison delayed Ibrahim's progress; and, meanwhile, See also:wild rumours went abroad as to Mehemet Ali's intentions. He was master of the holy cities, and the official Moniteur Ottoman denounced his supposed See also:plan of aiming at the See also:caliphate in See also:collusion with the sherif of Mecca. As for the pasha himself, he loudly disclaimed any such disloyal pre-tensions; his aim was to chastise Abdulla, pasha of Acre, who had harboured refugees from his " reforms "; to overthrow Khusrev, who had encouraged him in his refusal to surrender them; to secure the fulfilment of the sultan's promise with regard to Syria and Damascus. Mahmud, on the other See also:hand, was torn between hatred of the pasha and hatred of the See also:Christian powers which had forced him to make concessions to the Greeks. Voices urged him to come to terms with Mehemet Ali, secure See also:peace in See also:Islam, and turn a See also:united face of See also:defiance against See also:Europe; and for a while he harboured the See also:idea. He was conscious of his own intense unpopularity, the outcome of his efforts at reform; he knew that in popular See also:opinion Mehemet Ali was the See also:champion of Islam against the infidel See also:caliph, and that the issue of a struggle with him was more than doubtful. He was hampered by the unpaid See also:debt to Russia; by unrest in Bosnia and Albania; above all, by the revolt of the Greek Islands, which had left his navy, deprived of its best sailors, in no See also:condition to dispute the Egyptian command of the sea. In the end, however, his See also:pride prevailed; in April 1833 the Turkish commander-in-chief Hussein Pasha left Constantinople for the front; and in the third See also:week in May the See also:ban of See also:outlawry was launched against Mehemet All. Meanwhile, Ibrahim had occupied See also:Gaza and See also:Jerusalem as well as Jaffa; on the 27th of May, a few days after the publication of the ban, Acre was stormed; on the 15th of See also:June the Egyptians occupied Damascus. Ibrahim pressed on with characteristic rapidity, his rapid advance being favoured by the friendly attitude of the various sections of the Syrian See also:population, whom he had been at pains to conciliate. He defeated the Ottoman advance-guard at See also:Homs on the 9th of July and at Harrah on the 11th, entered Aleppo on the 17th, and on the 29th inflicted a crushing defeat on the See also:main Turkish army under Hussein Pasha at the pass of Beilan. All Syria was lost to the sultan, and the Egyptian advance-guard passed the See also:mountain defiles into Adana in Asia See also:Minor. Mahmud, in desperation, now turned for help to the powers. Russian aid, though promptly offered, was too See also:double-edged a weapon to be used See also:save at the last extremity. Austrian See also:diplomacy was, for the moment, that of Russia. France had broken her See also:long traditioh of friendship for Turkey by the occupation of See also:Algiers. Great Britain, prodigal of protestations of See also:goodwill, alone remained; and to her Mahmud turned with a definite offer of an offensive and defensive See also:alliance. Stratford Canning, who was at Constantinople for the purpose of superintending the negotiations for the delimitation of the frontiers of Greece, wrote Constantinople on the 1st of May he found Russia practically in See also:possession. Sultan Mahmud was to the last degree embittered against the powers which, with lively protestations of friendship, had forced him to humiliate himself before his hated See also:vassal. Russia had given him deeds, not words; and to Russia he committed himself. A further contingent of six or seven thousand Russians had arrived on the 22nd of April; Russian engineers were busy with the fortifications along the Straits; Russian agents alone were admitted to the sultan's presence. " It is See also:manifest," wrote Lord Ponsonby, " that the Porte stands in the relation of vassal to the Russian government." 1 The relation was soon to be yet more manifest. Before, on the 9th of July, the Russian fleet, with the Russian troops on See also:board, weighed See also:anchor for the See also:Black Sea, there was signed at the See also:palace of Unkiar Skelassi the famous treaty (July 8, 1833) which, under the See also:guise of an offensive and defensive alliance, practically made Russia the custodian of the See also:gates of the Black Sea. (See TURKEY: History.)
Mehemet All had triumphed, but he was well aware that he held the fruits of his victory by a See also:precarious See also:tenure. He was still but a vali among the rest, holding his many pashaliks nominally by the sultan's will and subject to See also:annual re-See also:appointment; and he knew that both his power and his See also:life would be forfeit so soon as the sultan should be strong enough to deprive him of them. To achieve this one end had, indeed, become the overmastering See also:passion of Mahmud's life, to defeat it the See also:object of all Mehe'met Ali's policy. So See also:early as 1834 it seemed as though the struggle would be renewed; for Mehemet Ali had extended to his new pashaliks his system of monopolies and See also:conscription, and the Syrians, finding that they had exchanged Turkish whips for Egyptian scorpions, See also:rose in a passion of revolt. It needed the intervention of Mehemet Ali in See also:person before, in the following year, they were finally subdued. Meanwhile it had needed all the See also:diplomatic armoury of the powers to prevent Mahmud hastening to the assistance of his " oppressed subjects." The threats of Great Britain and France, the failure of Russia to back him up, induced Mm to refrain; but sooner or later a renewal of the war was inevitable; for the sultan, with but one end in view, was reorganizing his army, and Mehemet Ali, who in the autumn of 1834 had assumed the See also:style of viceroy and sounded the powers as to their attitude in the event of his declaring his complete independence, refused to continue to pay See also:tribute which he knew would be used against himself.
The crisis came in 1838. In March the Egyptians were severely defeated by the revolted See also:Arabs of the Hauran; and the Porte, though diplomatic pressure kept it quiet, hurried on preparations for war. Mehemet Ali, too, had small See also:reason for postponing the conflict. The See also:work of See also:Moltke, who with other See also:German officers who had been engaged in organizing the Turkish army, threatened to destroy his 'superiority in the See also: 16), which applied equally to all the territories under his See also:rule, threatened to destroy at a See also:blow the lucrative monopolies which supplied him with the sinews of war. Months of suspense followed; for the powers had threatened to cast their See also:weight into the See also:scale against whichever See also:side should prove the aggressor, and Mehemet Ali was too astute to make the first move. In the end Mahmud's passion played into his hands. The old sultan thirsted to crush his rebellious vassal, at any cost; and on the 21st of April 1839 the Ottoman army, stationed at Bir on the See also:Euphrates, crossed the stream and invaded Syria. On the 23rd of June it was attacked and utterly routed by Ibrahim at Nezib. On the 1st of July the old sultan died, unconscious of the fatal news, leaving his throne to Abdul-Mejid, a lad of sixteen. To complete the desperateness of the situation the news reached the capital that Ahmed Pasha, the Ottoman admiral-in-chief, had sailed to Alexandria and surrendered his fleet to Mehemet Ali, on the pretext that the sultan's advisers were sold to the Russians. So far as the forces of the Ottoman Empire were concerned, 1 From Lord Ponsonby, F.O., Turkey, May 22, 11333. Mehemet All was now See also:absolute master of the situation. The See also:grand See also:vizier, in the sultan's name, wrote beseeching him to avoid the further shedding of Mussulman See also:blood, offering him a See also:free See also:pardon, the highest honours of the state, the hereditary pashalik of Egypt for himself, and Syria for Ibrahim until he should succeed his father in Egypt. Mehemet All replied diplomatically; for, though these offers See also:fell far See also:short of his ambitions, a studious moderation was essential in view of the doubtful attitude of the European powers. On the 27th of July the ambassadors of the five powers presented to the Porte a See also:joint See also:note, in which they declared that an agreement on the Eastern Question had been reached by the five Great Powers, and urged it " to suspend all definite decision made without their concurrence, pending the effect of their See also:interest in its welfare." The necessity for showing a united front justified the diplomatic inexactitude; but the powers were agreed on little except the need for agreement. Especially was this need realized by the British government, which feared that Russia would seize the occasion for an isolated intervention under the treaty of Unkiar Skelessi. On the 1st of August Palmerston wrote to Ponsonby impressing upon him that the representatives of the powers, in their communications with the Porte, should See also:act not only simultaneously in point of time, but identically in point of manner "—a principle important in view of later developments. Yet it was a task all but impossible to preserve this See also:appearance of unanimity in view of the divergent views within the See also:concert. France and Great Britain had hitherto acted together through See also:common opposition to the supposed designs of Russia. See also:Austria, too, now that the revolutionary spectres of 1830 had been laid, was reverting to her traditional opposition to Russia in the affairs of the Near See also:East, and Metternich sup-ported Palmerston's proposal of an See also:international See also:conference at See also:Vienna. Everything depended on the attitude of the See also:emperor See also:Nicholas. This was ultimately determined by his growing distrust of Austria and his perennial hatred of the democratic regime of France. The first caused him to reject the idea of a conference of which the activities would have been primarily directed against Russia; the second led him to drive a See also:wedge into the Anglo-French entente by making See also:direct overtures to Great Britain. Palmerston listened to the tsar's proposals, conveyed through See also:Baron See also:Brunnow, " with surprise and admiration." The emperor Nicholas was prepared to accept the views of Great Britain on the Turco-Egyptian question; to allow the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi to See also:lapse; to act henceforth in the Ottoman Empire only in concert with the other powers, in return for an agreement closing the See also:Dardanelles to the war-See also:ships of all nations and to extend the same principle to the Bosporus. Finally, Brunnow was empowered to arrange a See also:coalition of the great powers with a view to the settlement of the Egyptian question; and in this coalition the tsar was willing, for See also:political reasons, that France should be included, though he stated his personal preference for her exclusion. To these views Austria and, as a natural consequence, See also:Prussia acceded without difficulty. The attitude of France was a more doubtful quantity. In France Mehemet All had become a popular See also:hero; under him French See also:civilization had gained a foothold in Egypt; he was regarded as invincible; and it was hoped that in alliance with him French See also:influence in the Mediterranean would be supreme. Palmerston, on the other hand, believed that the Ottoman empire would never be secure until " the See also:desert had been placed between the pasha of Egypt and the sultan; and the view that the coalition should be directed against Mehemet Ali was shared by the other powers. In the circumstances France should either have loyally accepted the decision of the See also:majority of the concert, to which she had committed herself by See also:signing the joint note of the 27th of July, or should have frankly stated her intention of taking up a position outside. The fact that she did neither led to a crisis that for a moment threatened to plunge Europe into war. For nearly a year the diplomatic pour parleys continued without an agreement being reached; France insisted on Mehemet Ali's receiving the hereditary pashalik of Syria as well as that of Egypt, a proposition to which Palmerston, though sincerely anxious to preserve the Anglo-French entente, refused to agree. The tension of the situation was increased when, on the loth of February 184o, See also:Thiers came into power. The diplomacy of See also:Guizot, backed now by Austria and Prussia, had succeeded in persuading Palmerston to concede the principle of allowing Mehemet All to receive, besides Egypt, the pashalik of Acre as far as the frontiers of See also:Tripoli and Damascus (May 7). Thiers, however, refused to listen to any See also:suggestion for depriving him of any part of Syria; but, instead of breaking off the See also:correspondence and leaving the concert, he continued the negotiations, and before long circumstances came to the knowledge of the British government which seemed to prove that he was only doing so with a view to gaining time in See also:order to secure a See also:separate settlement in accordance with French views. The opportunity for this arose from a See also:change in the situation at Constantinople, where the dismissal of Khusrev Pasha had, in Mehemet Ali's view, removed the main obstacle to his reconciliation with the sultan. He proposed to the French See also:consul-See also:general at Alexandria to make advances to the Porte, and suggested sending back the Ottoman fleet as an See also:earnest of his See also:good intentions, a course which, it was hoped, "would See also:lead to a direct and amicable arrangement of the Turco-Egyptian question." On the 2Ist of June his See also:envoy, Sami See also:Bey, actually arrived at Constantinople, ostensibly to congratulate the sultan on the See also:birth of a daughter, really to make use of the French influence now supreme at the Porte in order to effect a settlement. In the circumstances the proper course for Thiers to have pursued would have been to have communicated to the powers, to whom he was See also:bound by the moral engagement of the 27th of July 1839, the new conditions arising out of Mehemet Ali's offer. Instead he wrote to Guizot, on the 3oth of June, saying that the situation argued strongly in favour of postponing any decision in See also:London, adding: " I have written to Alexandria and Constantinople t`o counsel moderation on both sides; but I have been careful to forbid the agents to enter on their own See also:account, and as a French under-taking, on a negotiation of which the avowed aim is a direct arrangement. If such an enterprise is imputed to us, you will be in a position to deny it."
The See also:discovery of what seemed an underhand intrigue on the part of France produced upon the powers exactly the effect that Thiers had foreseen and deprecated. They regarded it as an See also:attempt to ruin the work of the concert and to secure for France a " complete individual See also:triumph " at Alexandria and Constantinople, and their countermove was to sign at London on the 15th of July, without the concurrence of France, a convention with the Porte for the settlement of the affairs of the See also:Levant. By this See also:instrument it was agreed that the terms to be offered to Mehemet Ali having been concerted with the Porte, the signatory powers would unite their forces in order to compel the pasha to accept the settlement. As to the terms to be offered, it was arranged that, in the event of Mehemet Ali yielding within ten days, he should receive the hereditary pashalik of Egypt and the See also:administration for life of See also:southern Syria, with the See also:title of Pasha of Acre and the possession of the fortress of St Jean d'Acre. At the end of ten days, should he remain obdurate, the offer of Syria and Acre would be withdrawn; and if at the end of another ten days he was still defiant, the sultan would hold himself at See also:liberty to withdraw the whole offer and to take such See also:measures as his own interests and the counsels of his See also:allies might suggest to him.
The news of this " mortal affront " to the See also:honour of France caused immense excitement in See also:Paris. The whole See also:press was clamorous for war; Thiers declared that the alliance with Great Britain was shattered, and pressed on warlike preparations; even See also: On the 3rd of November Acre surrendered to the allied fleet. Mehemet Ali's power in Syria had collapsed like a pricked bubble; and with it had gone for ever the myth of his humane and enlightened rule. The See also:sole question now was whether he should be allowed to retain Egypt itself.
On the 15th of September the sultan, who had broken off all negotiations with Mehemet All on See also:receipt of the news of the Syrian revolt, acting on the See also:advice of Lord Ponsonby, declared the pasha deposed, on the ground that the See also:term allowed by the Convention of London had expired, and nominated his successor. Mehemet Ali received the news with his accustomed sang-froid, observing to the consuls of the four powers, who had come to notify their own removal, that " such denunciations were nothing new to him; that this was the See also:fourth, and that he hoped to get over it as well as he had done the other three, with the help of See also:God and the See also:Prophet." In the end his confidence proved to be justified. The news of the events in Syria and especially of the deprivation of Mehemet Ali had produced in France what appeared to be an exceedingly dangerous See also:temper; the French government declared that it regarded the See also:maintenance of Mehemet Ali in Egypt as essential to the European See also:balance of power; and Louis Philippe sought to make it clear to the British government, through the See also: Louis Philippe himself, however, was not prepared to use this See also:language; whereupon Thiers resigned, and a ew cabinet was formed under See also:Marshal See also:Soult, with Guizot as foreign secretary. The equivocal tone of the new speech from the Throne raised a See also:storm of protest in the Chambers and the country. It was, however, soon clear that Palmerston's diagnosis of the temper of the French bourgeois was correct; the clamour for war subsided; on the 4th of December the address on the Egyptian Question proposed by the government was carried, and peace was' assured. Nine days earlier Sir Charles Napier had appeared with a British squadron off Alexandria and, partly by persuasion, partly by threats, had induced Mehemet Ali to submit to the sultan and to send back the Ottoman fleet, in return for a See also:guarantee of the hereditary pashalik of Egypt. This arrangement was ratified by Palmerston; and all four powers now combined to press it on the reluctant Porte, pointing out, in a joint note of the 3oth of See also:January 1841, that " they were not conscious of advising a course out of See also:harmony with the See also:sovereignty and legitimate rights of the sultan, or contrary to the duties imposed on the Pasha of Egypt as a subject appointed by His See also:Highness to govern a See also:province of the Ottoman Empire." This principle was elaborated in the firman, issued on the 13th of February, by which the sultan conferred on Mehemet Ali and his heirs by direct descent the pashalik of Egypt, the greatest care being taken not to bestow any See also:rank and authority greater than that enjoyed by other viziers of the empire. By a second firman of the same date Mehemet Ali was invested with the government of Nubia, See also:Darfur, Khordofan and Sennaar, with their dependencies. On the loth of June the firman was solemnly promulgated at Alexandria. Thus ended the phase of the Egyptian Question with which the name of Mehemet Ali is specially bound up. The threatened European conflict had been averted, and presently the wounded susceptibilities of France were healed by the invitation extended to her to take part in the Straits Convention. As for Mehemet All himself, he now passes off the See also:stage of history. He was an old man;' his mind was soon to give way; and for some time before his See also:death on the 2nd of August 1849 the reins of power were held by his son and successor Ibrahim. Probably no See also:Oriental ruler, not even excepting Ali of See also:Iannina, has ever stirred up so much interest among his contemporaries as Mehemet Ali. The spectacle of an Eastern See also:despot apparently advancing on the lines of European progress was in itself as astonishing as new. Men thought they were witnessing the See also:dawn of a new era in the East; Mehemet Ali was hailed as the most beneficent and enlightened of princes; and political philosophers like See also:Jeremy See also:Bentham, who sent him elaborate letters of good advice, thought to find in him the means for developing their theories in virgin See also:soil. In fact the pasha was an illiterate See also:barbarian, of the same type as his countryman All of Iannina, courageous, cruel, astute, full of See also:wiles, avaricious and boundlessly ambitious. He never learned to read or write, though late in life he mastered colloquial Arabic; yet those Europeans who were brought into contact with him praised alike the dignity and See also:charm of his address, his ready wit, and the astonishing perspicacity which enabled him to read the motives of men and of governments and to deal effectively with each situation as it arose. The latest account of Mehemet Ali and the European crisis arising out of his revolt is that by W. See also:Alison See also:Phillips in vol. x. ch. xvii. of the See also:Cambridge See also:Modern History (1907). The bibliography attached to this See also:chapter (p. 852) gives a list of all the See also:principal published documents and See also:works, together with some See also:analysis of the unpublished Foreign Office records bearing on the subject. Of the works mentioned C. de See also:Freycinet's La Question d'Egypte (Paris, 1905) gives the most authoritative account of the diplomatic developments. (W. A. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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