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CHUMASHAN . In S.W. See also:California, Somewhere in 7 or more Nearly ex- S. of the Salinan S.W. See also:Cali- dialects. tinct; only and See also:Mariposan; fornia. with many 15-2o Endo- in the basins of small See also:settle- viduals still the Sta Maria, ments. living. Sta Inez, See also:lower Sta See also:Clara, &c., on the See also:coast, and the northeroSta. See also:Barbara Islands. COPEHAN In central N. Cali- Somewhere in 2 See also:chief di- About 130 at (Wintun). fornia, W. of the N.California. visions,with various vtl- Pujunan; %V. of many small lages, and the Coast range, settlements. as many on from See also:San Pablo See also:Round Val- and Suisun Bays ley Reserva- N. to See also:Mount tion. Shasta. CosmANOA_v. In the coast region Somewhere in N o t r u e Nearly ex- of central Cali- tinct ; only fornia, N. of the 25 or 3o viduals still living. central Cali- tribes, but fornia. 15-ao settle- Salinan; from meats. about San Fran- cisco S. to Point Sur and Big Panoche See also:Creek, Stock. See also:Area. Earliest See also:Home. Tribes, &c. See also:Population. 14. ESKmtoAN. and from the Interior of 9 W e l l - About 28,000, 15. ESSELENIAN. Pacific Ocean to See also:Alaska marked of which the San Joaquin (Rink) ; in g r o u p s, there are See also:river. the region with 6o-7o in See also:Green- Greenlandandsome W. of Hud- s e t t l e - - See also:land r r,000 of the See also:Arctic son's See also:Bay ments," A l a s k a islands, the whole (Boas); pre- &c. 13,0 0 0, See also:northern coast N. ferably the Many small C a n a d a of the Algonkian latter. 4500, and and Athabaskan, Somewhere in See also:Asia 12oo. from the straits of See also:Extinct; last Belle Isle to the See also:speaker of endoftheAleutian See also:language Islands; also in died about extreme N.E. 1890. Asia W. to the About 900, See also:Anadyr river; in of which E. See also:North See also:America 300 are in in earlier times Alaska. possibly consider- About 40,000, ablyfarthersouth. of which On the coast of W. Io,000 are in See also:Canada; of those in the See also:United States 28,000 are Chero- kee. Only some 140 fndt- viduals still living. Extinct prob- ably in IS58; a few sur- vived later, y, in possiblico. Mex 3990, in 6 See also:pueblos (some 150 at Isleta). 1219 in Okla- holna. About taco; See also:half in Canada and half in the U n i t e d States. About 2000., 16.HA1oAN(Skit- California, S. of W. or central settlements. tagetan). See also:Monterey, N. of California. 2 dialects; 17. IROQUOIAN. the Salinan. Interior of about 25 18. KALAPUYAN. The See also:Queen See also:Char- Alaska or chief 19. KARANKAWAN. lotte Islands, off N.W. Can- "towns," 20. KERESAN. the N.W. coast ada. and many 21. KIOWAN. of See also:British Colum- Somewhere be- See also:minor set- 22. KITUNAHAN. bia, and See also:part of tween the tlements.
23. KOLUSCHAN the See also:Prince of lower St Some ischief
(Tlingit). See also:Wales Archi- See also:Law r e n ce tribes with
24. KULANAPAN pelago, Alaska. and Hub- many minor
(Porno). The region about son's Bay subdivisions,
25. See also:KUSAN. Lakes See also:Erie and (See also:Brinton, About 15-r8,
See also:Ontario(Ontario, See also:Hale); in S. withminor
New See also:York, See also:Penn- See also:Ohio and divisions.
sylvania, Ohio, See also:Kentucky S-6, with
&c.),and on both (B o y l e , minor divi-
hanks of the St See also: represented in the S. See also:Texas. 2 chief divi- S.E.United States Somewhere in sions and 3 by the See also:Tuscarora, the New others. See also:Cherokee, &c. See also:Mexico- Some 12-15. (now chiefly in See also:Arizona See also:Oklahoma). region. In N.W. See also:Oregon, At the See also:foot of in the valley of the Rocky the Willamette, Mountains above the Falls. i n S. W. On the Texas coast, See also:Montana. from See also:Galveston to Somewhere E. Padre See also:Island. of the Rocky In N. central New Mountains in Mexico, on the Montana or Rio Grande and See also:Alberta. its tributaries. the Somewhere in Jemez, San Jose, the interior &c. of Alaska On the upper See also:Ark- o r N. W. ansas and Can- adian See also:rivers, in See also:Colorado, See also:Kansas, Oklahoma, &c.; formerly on the See also:head-See also:waters of the See also:Platte, and still earlier on the upper Yellowstone and See also:Missouri, in S.W. Montana. In S.E. British See also:Col- umbia, N. See also:Idaho, and part of N.W. Montana. On the coast and adjacent islands of S. Alaska, from 55° to 6o° N. See also:lat.; also some in Canada. About 30 About moo. Canada. Somewhere in On the coast in N.W. California N.W. Cali- See also:local divi- (Sonoma, See also:Lake fornia. sions, &c.; and Mendocino no t r u e counties), W. of tribes. the Yukian. On the coast of Somewhere in- 4, earlier About 50. central Oregon, land from more. on Coos Bay and Coos Bay, Oregon. Stock. Area. Earliest Home. Tribes, &c. Population. Coos and Coquille
rivers, S. of the
Yakonan; now
mostly on See also:Siletz
See also:Reservation.
26. LUTUAMIAN In the region of the In S. Oregon, 2, with local x034; of these
(See also:Klamath). Klamath and Tule N. of the subdivisions. 7 5 5 K I s-
lakes, Lost and K l a m a t h math, and
Sprague rivers, lakes. 279 See also:Modoc
&c., in Oregon (56in Okla-
(chiefly) and N.E. homa).
California; now
on Klamath Re-
servation, Oregon,
with a few also in
Oklahoma.
27. MARIPOSAN In S. central Cali- Somewhere in 30-40 See also:groups About 150, at
(Yokuts). fornia, in the central Cali- with See also:special Tule river
valley of the San fomia. dialects. reservation,
Joaquin, on the &c.
Tule, Kaweah,
See also: ; E. of the Salman, S. of the Moque- lumnan. 28.M000ELUMNAN In central Cali- Somewhere in 7dialects, no Several hun- (Miwok). fornia, in three central Cali- true tribes; dred; much sections: the See also:main fomia. about 20 scattered. area on the W. local groups slope of the Sier- with numer- See also:ras, from the See also:Cos- ous minor umnes river on ones. the N. to the 29. MUSKOGIAN See also:Fresno on the S.; Somewhere About 12, About 40,000; (Muskhogean). a second on the W. of the with many of t h es e 30. PAKAWAN N. See also:shore of San lower Missis- minor divi- 38,000 in (Coahuiltecan). Francisco B a y, sippi. sions. Oklahoma, and a third (small) Some part of 20-25, some 1000inMiss S. of Clear Lake N.E. Mexico. very small. sissipppi,35o on the head-waters in See also:Florida, of Putah Creek. and a few in In the Gulf States, See also:Louisiana. E. of the Missis- Practically sippi,most of Mis- extinct; in sissippi, See also:Alabama 1886 about and See also:Georgia,part 3o individu- of See also:Tennessee, S. als still Iiv- Carolina, Florida and Louisiana; now mostly in Oklahoma. On both See also:banks of the Rio Grande in Texas and Mexico, from its mouth to beyond ,(. PU UNAN See also:Laredo; at one N.E. C a I is N o t r u e See also:ing, mostly (Maidu). See also:time possibly E. fornia. t r i b e s; o n t h e 32. (KU0arok). a.4TEAN to See also:Antonio, and Somewhere in s e v e r a I Mexican 33. SAHAPTIAN. W. to the Sierra Cali. larger and See also:side of the 34. SALINAS. Madre. Somewhere in very many Rio Grande, 35. SAI.ISHAN. In N.E. California, the region of smaller loc- About 250 E. of the Sacra- theColumbia, al divisions, full-bloods. mento river, be- or farther N. " villages," In61889 much tween the Shastan Somewhere in &c. 00 some and Moquel- S. W. Ca Ii- Mlany,"& ; umnan. fornia. ager"viic-. r e d u c ed InCalifextrorniemea, onN.the W. 5.7. since; pos- Klamath river, 2 or 3 larger sibly 300. &c.; W. of the divisions ; About 4200. I Shastan. no true Practically In the region of tribes. extinct; in the See also:Columbia and 1884 only its tributaries, in 10-12 indi- parts of Washing- v i d u a l s ton, Idaho and living. Oregon; between lat. 44° and 47°, and from the Cas- cades to the See also:Bitter See also:Root Mountains. On the Pacific coast
of S.W.California,
from above S.
Antonio, to below
S. See also: 37. SHOSHONIAN. 38. SIOUAN. 39. TAKELMAN. 4o. TANOAN. 41. TIMUQUAN. 42. TONIKAN. 43. TONKAWAN. 44. TSIMSHIAN (Chimmesyan). Earliest Home. Tribes, &c. Population. 36. SISASTAN. 45. WAILATPUAN. Area. In N. California and S. Oregon, in the basins of the See also:Pit and Klamath rivers, on See also:Rogue river and to beyond the Siskiyou Mountains; S. of the Lutuamian. Less than 40 Shasta full-bloods; some 1200 Achomawi. In the W. part of the United States; most of the See also:country between lat. 35° and 45° and See also:long.so5' and 120°, with extensions N., S., and S.E. outside this area; represented also in California, and in Mexico by the Piman, Sonoran and Nahuatlan tribes. In the See also:basin of the Missouri and the upperMississippi; from about N. lat. 33° to 530 and, at the broadest, from 89° to 110° W. long.; also represented in See also:Wisconsin (See also:Winnebago), Louisiana,the Carolinas, and See also:Virginia (formerly). In S.W. Oregon, in the See also:middle valley of Rogue river, on the upper Rogue, and to about the California See also:line or beyond. In New Mexico, on the Rio Grande, &c., from lat. 33° to 36°; also a See also:settlement with the Moqui in N.E. Arizona, and another on the Rio Grande at the boundary line, partly in Mexico. In Florida, from the N. border and the Ocilla river to Lake Okeechobee, perhaps farther N. and S. In part of E. Louisiana and part of See also:Mississippi; in Avoyelles See also:parish, La., &c. In S. E. Texas, N.W. of the Karanka wan; remnants now in Oklahoma. In N.W. British Columbia, on the Naas and Skeena rivers, and the adjacent islands and coast S. to Millbank See also:Sound; also (since 1887) on Annette Island, Alaska. Foot-hills and plains E. of the Rocky Mountains in N.W. United States or Canada, but See also:residence inPlateau region long-continued. In the Carolina- Virginia region. In some part of S. Oregon. Some part of New Mexico. Some part of Florida. Somewhere in the Louisiana - Mississippi region. Somewhere in S. or W. Texas. On the head-waters of the Skeena river. Somer2-15in the United States; many more in Mexico, See also:ancient and See also:modern. Some 6o or Extinct in more settle- 18th cen- ments. Wry. In the United States, some 24,000. About 38,000; of which some 1400 in Canada. Practically extinct; perhaps 6 speakers of the language alive. About 4200 in 12 pueblos. Practically extinct; i n 1886 some 25 individuals living at Marksville, La. Nearly ex- tinct; in 1884only78 individuals living; in 1905 but 47, with Pon- kas, in Oklahoma. About 3200 in Canada, and 95o in Alaska. A western See also:section (Molala) in the Cascade region between Mounts See also:Hood and See also:Scott, in Washington and Oregon; an eastern (Cayuse) on the head-waters of the Wallawalla, See also:Umatilla and Grande Ronde rivers. In Oregon, S. of the Columbia river. Language practically, extinct; 405 Cayuse (in 1888 only 6 spoke their m o t h e r See also:tongue) are still living; in 1 8 8 1 about 20 Molalas. In N. California or Oregon. 6 or more linguistic divisions. Some 20 large and many minor ones. 2. Some 14-15 pueblos. 3. I. 3 main and several minor divisions. modern times; the existence of an Arawakan See also:colony in See also:south-western Florida, a 16th-See also:century representative in North America of a South See also:American linguistic stock. Some See also:stocks, e.g. Atakapan, Beothukan, See also:Chemakuan, See also:Chimarikan, Chitimachan, Kiowan, Kitunahan, Lutuamian, Takelman, Tonkawan, Wailatpuan, Yanan, Yuchian, Zuni, &c., were not split up into innumerable dialects, possessing at most but two, three or four, usually fewer. Of the larger stocks, the Athabaskan, Algonkian, Shoshonian, Siouan, Iroquoian, See also:Salishan, &c., possess many dialects often mutually unintelligible. In marked contrast with this is the See also:case of the Eskimoan stock, where, in spite of the See also:great distance over which it has extended, See also:dialect See also:variations are at a minimum, and the See also:people " have retained their language in all its minor features for centuries " (Boas). As to the See also:reason for the abundance of linguistic stocks in the region of the Pacific (from Alaska to Lower California, See also:west of long. 115°, there are 37: Eskimoan, Koluschan, Athabaskan, Haidan, Tsimshian, Wakashan, Salishan, Kitunahan, Chimakuan, See also:Chinookan, Sahaptian, Wailatpuan, Shoshonian, Kalapuyan, Yakonan, Kusan, Takelman, Lutuamian, Quoratean, Weitspekan, Wishoskan, Shastan, Yanan, Chimarikan, Yukian, Copehan, Pujunan, Washoan, Kulanapan, Moquelumnan, Mariposan, Costanoan, Esselenian, Salinan, Chumashan, Yuman) there has been much discussion. Of these no fewer than 18 are confined practically to the limits of the See also:present See also:state of California. Dialects of Athabaskan, Shoshonian and Yuman also occur within the Californian areas, thus making, in all, representatives of 21 linguistic stocks in a portion of the See also:continent measuring less than 156,000 sq. m. In explanation of this great diversity of speech several theories have been put forward. One is to the effect that here, as in the region of the See also:Caucasus in the Old See also:World, the multiplicity of See also:languages is due to the fact that tribe after tribe has been driven into the See also:mountain valleys, &c., by the pressure of stronger and more aggressive peoples, who were setting forth on careers of See also:migration and See also:conquest. Another view, advocated by Horatio Hale in 1886 (Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci.; also Proc. Canad. Inst., See also:Toronto, 1888), is that this great diversity of human speech is due to the language-making See also:instinct of See also:children, being the result of " its exercise by See also:young children accidentally isolated from the teachings and See also:influence of grown companions." A pair of young human beings, separating thus from the See also:parent tribe and starting social See also:life in a new environment by themselves, would, according to Mr Hale, soon produce a new dialect or a new language. This theory was looked upon with favour by See also:Romanes, Brinton, and other psychologists and ethnologists. Dr R. B. See also:Dixon (Congr. intern. See also:des. Amer., See also:Quebec, 5906, pp. 255-263), discussing some aspects of this question, concludes " that the great linguistic and considerable cultural complexity of this whole California-Oregon region is due to progressive differentiation rather than to the crowding into this restricted area of remnants of originally discrete stocks." How far two dialects of one stock can go•in the way of such differentiation without becoming absolutely distinct is illustrated by the Achomawi branches of the Shastan See also:family of speech, which Dr Dixon has very carefully investigated. 456 Stock. Area. Earliest Home. Tribes, &c. Population. 46. WAKASHAN Most of See also:Vancouver Somewhere in 3 main divi- 4765,of which (See also:Kwakiutl- Island (except the interior sions, with 435 are in See also:Nootka). some 3 of the E. of British more than the United 47. WASHOAN. coast) and most Columbia. SO" tribes." States. 48. WEITSPEKAN of the coast of In N.W. Ne- 1. About200,in (Yurok). British Columbia vada. 6 divisions; the region 49. WisHOSKAN from See also:Gardner In N. Cali- no true of See also:Carson, (Wiyot). channel to Cape fornia or S. tribes. See also:Reno, &c. Mudge; also part Oregon. 3-5 divisions; A few hun- of extreme N.W. I n N. Cali- no true dreds; in Washington. fornia. tribes. 187o esti- In E. central Cali- mated at fornia and the ad- 2000 or joining part of more. See also:Nevada, in the Nearly ex- region of Lake tint. Tahoe and the lower Carson valley. In N.W. California, W. of the Quo- ratean. In N.W. California, in the coast region, S. of the 50. YAKONAN. Weitspekan. W. c e n t r a I 4 chief divi- About3oo,on 5r. YANAN. In W. Oregon, in Oregon. sions, with the Siletz 52. YUCHIAN. the coast region So See also:mew her e numerous Reserva- 53• YUKSAN. and on the rivers farther E. villages, See also:Lion. from the Yaquina Somewhere E. r. Practically to the Umpqua. of the Cfiata- r. extinct; in In central N. Cali- hoochee. 5 divisions; 1884 but 35 fornia in theregion N. or central no true individuals of Round Moun- California. tribes. living. See also:tain, &c., S. of About 5oo, the Shastan. with Creeks In E. Georgia, on in O kla- the See also:Savannah homa. river from above About 250. See also:Augusta down to the Ogeechee, and also on Chatahoo- chee river; rem- nants now in Oklahoma. In N.W. California, Eof the Copehan, with a N. and a S. section; in the Round Valley region. 54. YUMAN. In the extreme S.W. N. W. Arizona. 9-7o. IntheUnited of the United Statesabout States (lower 4800. 55 ZU31AN. Colorado and Gila Some part of r. 1500. valley), part of California, most of Lower Cali- fornia, and a small part of Mexico. In N.W. New Mexico, on the t h e N e w Zuni river. Mexico - See also:Ari- zona region. Of these 55 different linguistic stocks 5 (Arawakan, Beothukan, Esselenian, Karankawan and Timuquan) are completely extinct, the Arawakan, of course, in North America only; 13 (Atakapan, Chimarikan, Chitimachan, Chumashan,Costanoan, Kusan, Pakawan, Salinan, Takelman, Tonikan, Tonkawan, Wishoskan, Yakonan) practically extinct; while the speakers of a few other languages or the survivors of the people once speaking them (e.g. Chemakuan, Chinookan, Copehan, Kalapuyan, Mariposan, Washoan, Yukian), number about 200 or Soo, in some cases fewer. Of the Wailatpuans, although some individuals belonging to the stock are still living, the language itself is practically extinct. The See also:distribution of the various stocks reveals some interesting facts. Among these are the stretch of the Eskimoan along the whole Arctic coast and its See also:extension into Asia; the immense areas occupied by the Athabaskan and the Algonkian, and (less notably) the Shosho-"tian and the Siouan; the existence of few stocks on the See also:Atlantic slope (from Labrador to Florida, See also:east of the Mississippi, only 8 are represented); the great multiplicity of stocks in the Pacific coast region, particularly in Oregon and California; the extension of the Shoshonian, Yuman and Athabaskan southward into Mexico, the Shoshonian in ancient, the Athabaskan in The test of vocabulary is not the only means by which the languages of the North American See also:aborigines might be classified. There are peculiarities of See also:phonetics, See also:morphology, See also:grammar, See also:sentence-structure, &c., which suggest groupings of the linguistic stocks See also:independent of their lexical content. Some languages are harsh and consonantal (e.g. the Kootenay and others of the North Pacific region), some melodious and vocalic, as are certain of the See also:tongues of California and the south-eastern United States. Some employ reduplication with great frequency, like certain Shoshonian dialects; others, like Kootenay, but rarely. A few, like the See also:Chinook, are exceedingly onomatopoeic. Some, like the northern languages of California, have no proper plural forms. Of the Californian languages the Pomo alone distinguishes gender in the pronoun, a feature See also:common to other languages no farther off than Oregon. The high development and syntactical use of demonstratives which characterize the Kwakiutl are not found among the Californian tongues. A few languages, like the Chinook and the Tonika, possess real grammatical gender. Some languages are essentially prefix, others essentially suffix tongues; while yet others possess both prefixes and suffixes, or even infixes as well. In some languages vocalic changes, in others consonantal, have grammatical or semantic meaning. In certain languages tense, See also:mood and See also:voice are rather' weakly See also:developed. In some languages syntactical cases occur (e.g. in certain Californian tongues), while in many others they are quite unknown. Altogether the most See also:recent investigations have revealed a much greater variety in morphological and in grammatical processes than was commonly believed to exist, so that the See also:general statement that the American See also:Indian tongues are all clearly and distinctly of the " incorporating " and " polysynthetic " types needs considerable modification. Using criteria of phonetics, morphology, grammar, &c., some of the best authorities have been able to suggest certain groups of North American Indian languages exhibiting peculiarities justifying the See also:assumption of relationship together. Thus Dr See also:Franz Boas (Mem. Intern. Congr. Anthrop., 1893, pp. 339-346, and See also:Ann. Archaeol. See also:Rep. Ontario, 1905, pp. 88-Io6) has grouped the linguistic stocks of the North Pacific coast region as follows: (I) Tlingit (Koluschan) and See also:Haida; (2) Tsimshian; (3) Wakashan (Kwakiutl-Nootka), Salish, Chemakum; (4) Chinook. In the same region the present writer has suggested a possible relationship of the Kootenay with Shoshonian. In the Californian area Dr R. B. Dixon and Dr A. L. Kroeber have made out these probable groups among the numerous language stocks of that part of the United States: (I) Chumashan and Salinan; (2) Yurok (Weitspekan), Wishoskan, Athabaskan, Karok (Quoratean), Chimarikan; (3) Maidu (Pujunan), Lutuamian, Wintun (Copehan), Yukian, Porno (Kulanapan), Costanoan, Esselenian, Yokuts (Mariposan), Shoshonian, Shastan, Moquelumnan and possibly Washoan; (4) Yanan; (5) Yuman. Suggestions of even larger groups than any of these have also been made. It may be that, judged by certain criteria, the Kootenay, Shoshonian, Iroquoian and Siouan may belong together, but this is merely tentative. It is also possible, from the See also:consideration of morphological peculiarities, that some if not all of the languages of the so-called ` Palaeo-See also:Asiatic " peoples of See also:Siberia, as Boas has suggested (See also:Science, vol. See also:xxiii., n.s., 1906, p. 644), may be included within the American See also:group of linguistic stocks. Indeed See also:Sternberg (Intern. Amer.-Kongr. xiv., See also:Stuttgart, 1904, pp. 137-140) has undertaken to show the relationship morphologically of one of these languages, the Giliak (of the island of Saghalin and the region about the mouth of the See also:Amur), to the American tongues, and its divergence from the "Ural-Altaic " family of speech. Here, however, more detailed investigations are needed to settle the question.
At one time the See also:opinion was widely prevalent that See also:primitive languages changed very rapidly, sometimes even within a General See also:generation, and the American Indian tongues were See also:character rather freely used as typical examples of such extreme ofIndtan variation. The See also:error of this view is now admitted languages. everywhere, and for the speech of the New World aborigines Dr Franz Boas states (Hndb. Amer. Ind. pt. i., 1907, p. 759) : " There is, however, no See also:historical See also:proof of the See also:change of any Indian language since the time of the See also:discovery comparable with that of the language of See also:England between the loth and 13th centuries." Another statement that has obtained currency, appearing even in otherwise reputable quarters sometimes, is to the effect that some of the vocabularies of American Indian languages consist of but a few hua.dred words, one being indeed so scanty that its speakers could not converse by See also:night, since darkness prevented resort to the use of gesture. This is absolutely contrary to fact, for the vocabularies of the languages of the American See also:Indians are See also:rich, and, according to the best authority on the subject, " it is certain that in every one there are a couple of thousand of See also:stem words and many thousand words, as that See also:term is defined in See also:English dictionaries " (Boas). The number of words in the vocabulary of the individual Indian is also much greater than is generally thought to be the case. It was long customary, even in " scientific " circles, to deny to American Indian tongues the See also:possession of abstract terms, but here again the authority of the best recent investigators is conclusive, for " the See also:power to See also:form abstract ideas is, nevertheless, not lacking, and the development of abstract thought would find in every one of the languages a ready means of expression " (Boas). In this connexion, however, it should be remembered that, in general, the languages of the American aborigines " are not so well adapted to generalized statements as to lively descriptions." The holophrastic terms characteristic of so many American Indian languages " are not due to a lack of power to classify, but are rather expressions of form of culture, single terms being intended for those ideas of See also:prime importance to the people" (Boas). This consideration of American primitive tongues in their relation to culture-types opens up a comparatively new See also: As a result of the most recent and authoritative philological investigations, the following may be cited as some of the chief characteristics of many, and in some cases, of most of the languages of the aborigines north of Mexico. 1. Tendency to See also:express ideas with great graphic detail as to See also:place, form, &c. 2. " Polysynthesis," a See also:device making possible, by the use of modifications of stems and radicals and the employment of prefixes, suffixes, and sometimes infixes, &c., the expression of a large number of special ideas. By such methods of See also:composition (to cite two examples from Boas) the See also:Eskimo can say at one breath, so to speak, " He only orders him to go and see, and the Tsimshian, " He went with him upward in the dark and came against an obstacle." The Eskimo Takusariartorumagaluarnerpd ? (" Do you think he really intends to go to look after it ? ") is made up from the following elements: Takusar(pd), " he looks after it "; iartor (poq), " he goes to "; uma (voq), " he intends to "; (g) aluar (poq), he does so, but "; nerpoq, ` do you think he." The See also:Cree " word ' " kekawewechetushekamikowanowow " (" may it," i.e. the See also:grace of Jesus See also:Christ, " remain with you ") is resolvable into: Kelawow (here split into ke at the beginning and -owow as terminal), " you " (pl.); ka=sign of futurity (first and second persons); we=an optative particle ; weche =" with " ; tusheka = verbal See also:radical, " remain " ; mik =pronominal particle showing that the subject of the verb is in the third See also:person and the See also:object in the second, " it-you "; owan =verbal possessive particle, indicating that the subject of the verb is something inanimate belonging to the animate third person, " his-it." The See also:Carrier (Athabaskan) lekeenahweshcendcethcencezkrok, " I usually recommence to walk to and fro on all fours while singing," which Morice calls " a See also:simple word," is built up from the following elements: le =" prefix expressing See also:reciprocity, which, when in connexion with a verb of locomotion, indicates that the See also:movement is executed between two certain points without giving prominence to either "; kee=particle denoting direction toward these points; na =" iterative particle, suggesting that the See also:action is repeated "; hwe = particle referring to the action as being in its incipient See also:stage; sheen=" See also:song " (when incorporated in a verb it " indicates that singing accompanies the action expressed by the verbal root ") ; dce =" a particle called for by sheen, said particle always entering into the composition of verbs denoting reference to vocal sounds"; thce=" the secondary radical of the uncomposite verb thizkret inflected from thi for the See also:sake of euphony with nwz; neez =" the pronominal See also:element of the whole See also:compound " (the n is demanded by the previous hwe, ee marks the present tense, and z marks the first person singular of the third conjugation; krok= " the main radical, altered here by the usitative from the normal form kret, and is expressive of locomotion habitually executed on four feet or on all fours." 3. See also:Incorporation of noun and adjectives in verb, or of pronouns in verb. From the Kootenay la9guage of south-eastern -British Columbia the following examples may be given: Natltlamkine= " He carries (the) head in (his) See also:hand "; Howankotlamkine =" I shake (the) head in (my) hand "; Witlwumine=" (His) belly is large "; Tlitkatine =" He has no tail "; Matlnaktletline=" He opens his eyes." In these expressions are incorporated, with certain abbreviations of form, the words agktlam, head "; agkowum, " belly " ; aqkat, " tail "; aqkaktletl, eyes." In some languages the form for the noun incorporated in the verb is entirely different from that in independent use. Of pronominal incorporation these examples are from the Kootenay: Nupqanapine=" He See also:sees me" ; Honupqanisine =" I see you "; Tshatlipitlisine =" He will kill you "; Tshatlitqanawasine =" He will bite us "; Tshatltsukwatisine =" He is Foing to seize you ; Hintshatltlpatlnapine =" You will See also:honour me. ' For incorporation of adjectives these examples will serve: Honitenustik =" I paint (my See also:face)," literally, " I make it red " (kanohos, " red "; the radical is nos or nits for nohos); Howitlkeine =" I shout," literally, " I talk big "; Howitlkaine = " I am tall (big)." In some languages the pronouns denoting subject, See also:direct object and indirect object are all incorporated in the verb. 4. The formation of nouns of very composite character by the use of stems or radicals and prefixes, suffixes, &c., of various sorts, the intricacy of such formations exceeding often anything known in the Indo-See also:European and Semitic languages. Often the component parts are " clipped," or changed by decapitation, decaudation, syncopation, &c., before being used in the compound. The following examples from various Indian languages will illustrate the See also:process:—Kootenay : Agkinkanuktlamnam =" See also:crown or head," from eq (prefix of uncertain meaning), kinkan=" See also:top," Clam=" head," -nam (suffix=" somebody's "). Tlingit: Kanyi kuwate=" See also:aurora," liter-ally, " See also:fire (kan)-like (yiq)-out-of-doors (ku)-See also:colour (See also:wale)." 5. The development of a great variety of forms for See also:personal and See also:demonstrative pronouns. In the latter, sometimes, the language distinguishes " visibility and invisibility, present and past, location to the right, See also:left, front and back of, and above and below the speaker " (Boas). According to Morice (Trans. Caned. Inst., 1889-189o, p. 187), the Carrier language of the Athabaskan stock has no fewer than seventeen possessive pronouns of the third person. 6. Indistinctness of demarcation between noun and verb; in some languages the transitive and in others the intransitive only is really verbal in form. 7. The use of the intransitive verb as a means of expressing ideas which in European tongues, e.g., would be carried by adjectives. In the Carrier language almost all adjectives are " genuine verbs " (Morice). 8. The expression of abstract nouns in a verbalized form. Thus Cree (Algonkian) generally says, in preference to using the abstract noun pinaatisewin, " life," the periphrastic verb apimatisenanewuk, literally " that they (indefinite as to person) live." So far is this carried sometimes that Horden (Cree Grammar, See also:London, 1881, p. 5) says: " I have known an Indian speak a long sentence, on the duties of married persons to each other, without using a single noun." As an interesting example of a long word in American-Indian languages may be mentioned the See also:Iroquois taontasakonatiatawitserakninonseronniontonhatieseke. This " word," which, as See also:Forbes (Congr. intern. d. Amer., Quebec, 1906, p. 103) suggests, would serve well on the signboard of a dealer in novelties, is translated by him, " Que plusieurs personnes viennent acheter des habits pour d'autres personnes avec de quoi payer." Not so formidable is deyeknonhsedehrihadasterasterahetakwa, a term for " See also:stove See also:polish," in use on the See also:Mohawk Reservation near See also:Brantford, Ontario. The literature in the native languages of North America due to missionary efforts has now reached large proportions. Naturally See also:Bible See also:translations have been most important. According to See also:Wilberforce Eames (Handbook of Amer. Inds., 1907, pt. i. pp. 143-145), " the Bible has been printed in part or in whole in 32 Indian languages north of Mexico. In 18 one or more portions have been printed; in 9 others the New Testament or more has appeared; and in 5 languages, namely, the Massachuset, Cree, Labrador Eskimo, Santee Dakota and Tukkuthkutchin, the whole Bible is in See also:print." Of the 32 languages possessing Bible translations of some sort 3 are Eskimoan dialects, 4 Athabaskan, 13 Algonkian, 3 Iroquoian, 2 Muskogian, 2 Siouan, 1 Caddoan, i Sahaptian, i Wakashan, 1 Tsimshian, 1 Haidan. Translations of the See also:Lord's See also:Prayer, See also:hymns, articles of faith and brief devotional compositions exist now in many more languages and dialects. A goodly number of other books have also been made accessible in Indian versions, e.g. See also:Bunyan's See also:Pilgrim's Progress (Dakota, 18J7), See also:Baxter's See also:Call to the Unconverted (Massachuset, 1655), See also:Goodrich's See also:Child's See also:Book of the Creation (See also:Choctaw, 1839), Thomas, a Kempis's See also:Imitation of Christ (See also:Greenland Eskimo, 1787), See also:Newton's The King's See also:Highway (Dakota, 1879), &c. The " Five Civilized Tribes," who are now full-fledged citizens of the state of Oklahoma, possess a See also:mass of literature (legal, religious, See also:political, educational, &c.) published in the See also:alphabet adapted from the " Cherokee Alphabet " invented by Sequoyah about 1821, " which at once raised them to the See also:rank of a See also:literary people." Of See also:periodicals in Indian languages there have been many published from time to time among the " Five Civilized Tribes." Of the Cherokee See also:Advocate, Mooney said in 1897-1898, " It is still continued under the auspices of the Nation, printed in both languages (i.e. Cherokee and English), and distributed See also:free at the expense of the Nation to those unable to read English—an example without parallel in any other See also:government." More or less ephemeral periodicals (weekly, monthly, &c.) are on See also:record in various Algonkian, Iroquoian, Siouan and other languages, and the Greenland Eskimo have one, published irregularly since 1861. Wilberforce Eames (Handbook of Amer. Inds., 1907, pt. i. p. 389) See also:chronicles 122 dictionaries (of which more than half are still in See also:MSS.) of 63 North American-Indian languages, belonging to 19 different stocks.
The following linguistic stocks are represented by printed dictionaries (in one or more dialects) : Algonkian, Athabaskan, Chinookan, Eskimoan, Iroquoian, Lutuamian, Muskogian, Salishan, Shoshonian, Siouan. There exists a considerable number of texts (myths, legends, historical data, songs, grammatical material, &c.) in quite a number of Indian languages that have been published by scientific investigators. The Algonkian (e.g. See also: See also:Professor See also:Cyrus Thomas, however, of the See also:Bureau of American See also:Ethnology, discussing See also:primary Indian migrations in North America (Congr. intern. d. Amer., Quebec, 1906, i. 189-204), rejects the theory that the Siouan stock originated in the Carolinas, and adopts for them an origin in the region north of Lake See also:Superior, whence he also derives the Iroquoian stock, whose primitive home Dr See also:David See also:Boyle (Ann. Archaeol. Rep. Ontario, 1905, p. 154), the See also:Canadian ethnologist, would place in Kentucky and southern Ohio. Another interesting contribution to this subject is made by Mr P. E. Goddard (Congr. intern. des. Amer., Quebec, 1906, i. 337-358). Contemplating the distribution of the tribes belonging to the Athabaskan stock in three divisions, viz. a northern (continuous and very extensive), a Pacific coast See also:division (scattered through Washington, Oregon, California), and a southern division which occupies a large area in Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, Kansas, Texas and Mexico, Mr Goddard suggests that the intrusion of non-Athabaskan peoples into a region once completely in the possession of the Athabaskan stock is the best explanation for the facts as now existing not explicable from assimilation to environment, which has here played a great role. Tt is possible also that a like explanation may hold for the conditions apparent in some other linguistic stocks. Many Indian tribes have been forcibly removed from their own habitats to reservations, or induced to move by missionary efforts, &c. Thus, in the state of Oklahoma are to be found representatives of the following tribes: See also:Apache, See also:Arapaho, See also:Caddo, Cherokee, See also:Cheyenne, See also:Chickasaw, Choctaw, See also:Comanche, Creek, See also:Iowa, Kansa, See also:Kickapoo, Kiowa, See also:Miami, Missouri, Modoc, Osage, Oto, See also:Ottawa, See also:Pawnee, See also:Peoria, See also:Ponca, See also:Potawatomi, See also:Quapaw, See also:Sac and Fox, See also:Seminole, See also:Seneca, See also:Shawnee, See also:Tonkawa, See also:Wichita, See also:Wyandot, &c.; these belong to to different linguistic stocks, whose See also:original habitats were widely distant from one another in many cases. Some of the American-Indian linguistic stocks (those of California especially) hardly know real tribal divisions, but local groups or settlements only; others have many large and important tribes. The See also:tabular alphabetical See also:list given in the following pages contains the names of the more important and more interesting tribes of American aborigines north of Mexico, and of the stocks to which they belong, their situation and population in 1909, the degree of intermixture with whites or negroes, their social, moral and religious See also:condition, state of progress, &c., and also references to the best or the most recent literature concerning them. Up to the date of their publication references to the literature concerning the tribes of the stocks treated will be found in Pilling's See also:bibliographies: Algonquian (1891), Athabascan (1892), Chinookan (1893), Eskimoan (1887), Iroquoian (1888), Muskhogean (1889), Salishan (1893), Siouan (1887) and Wakashan (1894). See also the Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico (Washington, 1907--1910); and the sumptuous monograph of E. S. See also:Curtis, The North American Indian (N. Y., vols. i.-xx., 1908), with its remarkable See also:reproduction of Indian types. Migrations of Indian stocks. Tribe. Stock. Situation, Population, &c. Degree of Condition, Progress, &c. nis Intermixture. Authorities. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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