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HEBREW LITERATURE
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See also:HEBREW LITERATURE . Properly speaking, " Hebrew Literature " denotes all See also:works written in the Hebrew See also:language. In catalogues and See also:bibliographies, however, the expression is now generally used, conveniently if incorrectly, as synonymous with Jewish literature, including all works written by See also:Jews in Hebrew characters, whether the language be Aramaic, Arabic or even some See also:vernacular not related to Hebrew. The literature begins with, as it is almost entirely based upon, the Old Testament. There were no doubt in the earliest times popular songs orally transmitted and perhaps books Old Testa. of See also:annals and See also:laws, but except in so far as remnants See also:meat- of them are embedded in the biblical books, they have See also:Scrip-entirely disappeared. Thus the See also:Book of the See also:Wars of tures. the See also:Lord is mentioned in Num. xxi. 14; the Book of See also:Jashar in Josh. x. 13, 2. Sam. i. 18; the See also:Song of the Well is quoted in Num. xxi. 17, 18, and the song of Sihon and See also:Moab, ib. 27-30; of See also:Lamech, Gen. iv. 23, 24; of See also:Moses, Exod. xv. As in other literatures, these popular elements See also:form the See also:foundation on which greater works are gradually built, and it is one See also:function of See also:literary See also:criticism to show the way in which the component parts were welded into a See also:uniform whole. The traditional view that Moses was the author of the See also:Pentateuch in its See also:present form, would make this the earliest See also:monument of Hebrew literature. See also:Modern inquiry, however, has arrived at other conclusions (see See also:BIBLE, Old Testament), which may be briefly summarized as follows the Pentateuch is compiled from various documents, the earliest of which is denoted by J (beginning at Gen. ii. 4) from the fact that its author regularly uses the divine name See also:Jehovah (Yahweh). Its date is now usually given as about 800 B.c.' In the next See also:century the document E was composed, so called from its using 1 The dating of these documents is extremely difficult, since it is based entirely on See also:internal See also:evidence. Various scholars, while agreeing on the actual divisions of the See also:text, differ on the question of priority. The See also:dates here given are those which seem to be most generally accepted at the present See also:time. They are not put forward as the result of an See also:independent See also:review of the evidence. Elohim (See also:God) instead of Yahweh. Both these documents are date, clearly rests on the same tradition. Parallel to Onkelos was another See also:Targum on the See also:Law, generally called pseudo-See also:Jonathan, which was edited in the 7th century in See also:Palestine, and is based on the same See also:system of See also:interpretation but is See also:fuller and closer to the See also:original tradition. There is also a fragmentary Targum (Palestinian) the relation of which to the others is obscure. It may be only a See also:series of disconnected glosses on Onkelos. For the other books, the recognized Targum on the Prophets is that ascribed to Jonathan See also:ben Uzziel (4th century ?), which originated in Palestine, but was edited in Babylonia, so that it has the same See also:history and linguistic See also:character as Onkelos. Just as there is a Palestinian Targum on the Law parallel to the Babylonian Onkelos, so there is a Palestinian Targum (called Yerushalmi) on the Prophets parallel to that of Ben Uzziel, but of later date and incomplete. The Law and the Prophets being alone used in the services of the See also:synagogue, there was no authorized version of the See also:rest of the See also:Canon. There are, however, Targumim on the See also:Psalms and See also:Job, composed in the 5th century, on See also:Proverbs, resembling the Peshitta version, on the five Meghilloth, paraphrastic and agadic (see below) in character, and on See also:Chronicles—all Palestinian. There is also a second Targum on See also:Esther. There is none on See also:Daniel, See also:Ezra and See also:Nehemiah. We must now return to the 2nd century. During the See also:period which followed the later canonical books, not only was See also:translation, and therefore exegesis, cultivated, but even more the Nalakhah. amplification of the Law. According to Jewish See also:teach- See also:ing (e.g. Abhoth i. 1) Moses received on See also:Mount See also:Sinai not only the written Law as set down in the Pentateuch, but also the Oral Law, which he communicated personally to the 70 elders and through them by a "See also:chain of tradition" to succeeding ages. The application of this oral law is called Halakhah, the rules by which a See also:man's daily "walk " is regulated. The halakhah was by no means inferior in See also:prestige to the written Law. Indeed some teachers even went so far as to ascribe a higher value to it, since it comes into closer relation with the details of everyday See also:life. It was not independent of the written Law, still less could it be in opposition to it. Rather it was implicitly contained in the Torah, and the See also:duty of the teacher was to show this. It was therefore of the first importance that the chain of tradition should be continuous and trustworthy. The See also:line is traced through biblical teachers to Ezra, the first of the Sopherim or See also:scribes, who handed on the See also:charge to the " men of the See also:Great Synagogue," a much-discussed See also:term for a See also:body or See also:succession of teachers inaugurated by Ezra. The last member of it, See also:Simon the Just (either Simon I., who died about 300 B.C., or Simon II., who died about 200B.C.),was the first of the next series, called Elders, represented in the tradition by pairs of teachers, ending with See also:Hillel and See also:Shammai about the beginning of the See also:Christian era. Their pupils form the starting-point of the next series, the Tannaim (from See also:Aram. tend to teach), who occupy the first two centuries A.D. By this time the collection of halakhic material had become very large and various, and after several attempts had been made to reduce it to uniformity, a See also:code of oral tradition was Mishnah. finally See also:drawn up in the 2nd century by See also:Judah ha-See also:Nasi, called See also:Rabbi See also:par excellence. This was the Mishnah. Its name is derived from the Hebrew shanah, corresponding to the Aramaic tend, and therefore a suitable name for a tannaitic See also:work, meaning the repetition or teaching of the oral law. It is written in the Hebrew of the See also:schools (leshon hakhamim) which differs in many respects from that of the Old Testament (see HEBREW LANGUAGE). It is divided into six " orders," according -Ns subject, and each See also:order is subdivided into chapters. In making his selection of halakhoth, Rabbi used the earlier compilations, which are quoted as " words of Rabbi 'Agiba" or of R. See also:Meir, but rejected much which was afterwards collected under the See also:title of Tosefta (addition) and Baraita (outside the Mishnah). Traditional teaching was, however, not confined to halakhah. As observed above, it was the duty of the teachers to show the connexion of See also:practical rules with the written Law, See also:Midrash. the more so since the See also:Sadducees rejected the authority of the oral law as such. Hence arises Midrash, exposition, from considered to have originated in the Northerip See also:kingdom, See also:Israel, where also in the 8th century appeared the prophets See also:Amos and See also:Hosea. To the same period belong the book of See also:Micah, the earlier parts of the books of See also:Samuel, of See also:Isaiah and of Proverbs, and perhaps some Psalms. In 722 B.C. See also:Samaria was taken and the See also:Northern kingdom ceased to exist. Judah suffered also, and it is not until a century later that any important literary activity is again manifested. The See also:main See also:part of the book of See also:Deuteronomy was " found " shortly before 62r B.C. and about the same time appeared the prophets See also:Jeremiah and See also:Zephaniah, and perhaps the book of See also:Ruth. A few years later (about boo) the two Pentateuchal documents J and E were See also:woven together, the books of See also:Kings were compiled; the book of See also:Habakkuk and parts of the Proverbs were written. See also:Early in the next century See also:Jerusalem was taken by See also:Nebuchadrezzar, and the See also:prophet See also:Ezekiel was among the exiles with See also:Jehoiachin. Somewhat later (c. 550) the combined document JE was edited by a writer under the See also:influence of Deuteronomy, the later parts of the books of Samuel were written, parts of Isaiah, the books of See also:Obadiah, See also:Haggai, See also:Zechariah and perhaps the later Proverbs. In the See also:exile, but probably after 50o B.c., an important See also:section of the See also:Hexateuch, usually called the See also:Priest's Code (P), was drawn up. At various times in the same century are to be placed the book of Job, the See also:post-exilic parts of Isaiah, the books of See also:Joel, See also:Jonah, See also:Malachi and the Song of Songs. The Pentateuch (or Hexateuch) was finally completed in its present form at some time before 400 B.C. The latest parts of the Old Testament are the books of Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah (c. 330 B.C.), See also:Ecclesiastes and Esther (3rd century) and Daniel, composed either in the 3rd century or according to some views as See also:late as the time of See also:Antiochus Epiphanes (c. 168 B.c.). With regard to the date of the Psalms, internal evidence, from the nature of the See also:case, leads to few results which are convincing. The most reasonable view seems to be that the collection was formed gradually and that the See also:process was going on during most of the period sketched above. It is not to be supposed that all the contents of the Old Testa- ment were immediately accepted as sacred, or that they were ever all regarded as being on the same level. The AposTy' Torah, the Law delivered to Moses, held among the peal iiterature. Jews of the 4th century B.C. as it holds now, a pre- eminent position. The inclusion of other books in the Canon was See also:gradual, and was effected only after centuries of debate. The Jews have always been, however, an intensely literary See also:people, and the books ultimately accepted as canonical were only a selection from the literature in existence at the beginning of the Christian era. The rejected books receiving little See also:attention have mostly either been altogether lost or have survived only in See also:translations, as in the case of the Apocrypha. Hence from the See also:composition of the latest canonical books to the redaction of the Mishna (see below) in the 2nd century A.D., the remains of Hebrew literature are very scanty. Of books of this period which are known to have existed in Hebrew or Aramaic up to the time of See also:Jerome (and even later) we now possess most of the original Hebrew text of Ben Sira (See also:Ecclesiasticus) in a somewhat corrupt form, and fragments of an Aramaic text of a re- cension of theTestaments of theTwelve Patriarchs,both discovered within See also:recent years. Besides definite works of this See also:kind, there was also being formed during this period a large body of ex- egetical and legal material, for the most part orally transmitted, which only received its literary form much later. As Hebrew became less See also:familiar to the people, a system of translating the text of the Law into the Aramaic vernacular See also:verse by verse, was adopted in the synagogue. The beginnings of it are supposed to be indicated in Neh. viii. 8. The translation was no doubt originally extemporary, and varied with the individual trans- lators, but its form gradually became fixed and was ultimately Targum. written down. It was called Targum, from the Aramaic See also:tar See also:gem, to translate. The earliest to be thus edited was the Targum of Onk.elos (Ongelos), the See also:proselyte, on the Law. It received its final form in Babylonia probably in the 3rd century A.D. The Samaritan Targum, of about the same darash to " investigate " a scriptural passage. Of this halakhic Midrash we possess that on See also:Exodus, called Mekhilta. that on See also:Leviticus, called Sifra, and that on See also:Numbers and Deuteronomy, called Sifre. All of these were drawn up in the period of the Amoraim, the order of teachers who succeeded the Tannaim, from the See also:close of the Mishnah to about A.D. 500. The term Midrash, however, more commonly implies agada, i.e. the homiletical exposition of the text, with illustrations designed to make it more attractive to the readers or hearer. Picturesque teaching of this kind was always popular, and specimens of it are familiar in the See also:Gospel discourses. It began, as a method, with the Sopherim (though there are traces in the Old Testament itself), and was most See also:developed among the Tannaim and Amoraim, rivalling even the study of halakhah. As the existing halakhoth were collected and edited in the Mishnah, so the much larger agadic material was gathered together and arranged in the Midrashim. Apart from the agadic parts of the earlier Mekhilta, Sifra and Sifre, the most important of these collections (which are See also:anonymous) form a sort of continuous commentary on various books of the Bible. They were called Rabboth (great Midrashim) to distinguish them from preceding smaller collections. Bereshith See also:Rabba, on See also:Genesis, and Ekhah Rabbati, on See also:Lamentations, were probably edited in the 7th century. Of the same character and of about the same date are the Pesiqta, on the lessons for Sabbaths and feast-days, and Wayyiqra R. on Leviticus. A century perhaps later is the Tanhuma, on the sections of the Pentateuch, and later still the Pesiqta Rabbati, Shemoth R. (on Exodus), Bemidhbar R. (on Numbers), Debharim R. (on Deuteronomy). There are also Midrashim on the Canticle, Ruth, Ecclesiastes, Esther and the Psalms, belonging to this later period, the Pirge R. Eliezer, of the 8th or 9th century, a sort of history of creation and of the patriarchs, and the See also:Tanna debe Eliyahrs (an ethical work of the loth century but containing much that is old), besides a large number of See also:minor compositions.' In See also:general, these performed very much the same function as the lives of See also:saints in the early and See also:medieval See also: Very important for the study of Midrashic literature are the Yalqut (gleaning) Shim'oni, on the whole Bible, the Yalqut Mekhiri, on the Prophets, Psalms, Proverbs and Job, and the Midrash ha-gadhol,2 all of which are of uncertain but late date and preserve earlier material. The last, which is preserved in See also:MSS. from See also:Yemen, is especially valuable as representing an independent tradition. Meanwhile, if agadic exegesis was popular in the centuries following the redaction of the Mishna, the study of halakhah See also:Talmud. was by no means neglected. As the discussion of the Law led up to the compilation of the Mishnah, so the Mishnah itself became in turn the subject of further discussion. The material thus accumulated, both halakhic and agadic, forming a commentary on and amplification of the Mishnah, was eventually written down under the name of Gemara (from gemar, to learn completely), the two together forming the Talmud (properly " instruction "). The tradition, as in the case of the Targums, was again twofold; that which had grown up in the Palestinian Schools and that of Babylonia. The founda- tion, however, the Mishnah, was the same in both. Both works were due to the Amoraim and were completed by about A.D. 500, though the date at which they were actually committed to See also:writing is very uncertain. It is probable that notes or selections were from time to time written down to help in teaching and learning the immense See also:mass of material, in spite of the fact that even in Sherira's time (rith century) such See also:aids to memory were not officially recognized. Both Talmuds are arranged according to the six orders of the Mishnah, but the discussion of the Mishnic text often wanders off into widely different topics. Neither is altogether See also:complete. In the Palestinian Talmud (Yerushalmi) the gemara of the 5th order (Qodashim) and of nearly all the 6th (Tohoroth) is missing, besides smaller parts. ' See especially A. See also:Jellinek's See also:Bet-ha-Midrasch (See also:Leipzig, 1853), for these lesser midrashim. !That on Genesis was edited for the first time by Schechter (See also:Cambridge, 1902). In the Babylonian Talmud (Babhli) there is no gemara to the smaller tractates of Order r, and to parts of ii., iv., v., vi. The language of both gemaras is in the main the Aramaic vernacular (western Aramaic in Yerushalmi, eastern in Babhli), but early halakhic traditions (e.g. of Tannaitic origin) are given in their original form, and the discussion of them is usually also in Hebrew. Babhli is not only greater in bulk than Yerushalmi, but has also received far greater attention, so that the name Talmud alone is often used for it. As being a See also:constant See also:object of study numerous commentaries have been written on the Talmud from the earliest times till the present. The most important of them for the understanding of the gemara (Babhli) is that of Rashi3 (See also:Solomon ben See also:Isaac, d. 1104) with the Tosafoth (additions, not to be confused with the Tosefta) chiefly by the See also:French school of rabbis following See also:Rashi. These are always printed in the See also:editions on the same See also:page as the Mishnah and Gemara, the whole, with various other See also:matter, filling generally about 12 See also:folio volumes. Since the introduction of See also:printing, the Talmud, is always cited by the number of the See also:leaf in the first edition (See also:Venice, 1520, &c.), to which all subsequent editions conform. In order to facilitate the practical study of the Talmud, it was natural that abridgements of it should be made. Two of these may be mentioned which are usually found in the larger editions: that by Isaac Alfasi (i.e. of See also:Fez) in the rrth century, often cited in the Jewish manner as Rif; and that by See also:Asher ben Yebiel (d. 1328) of See also:Toledo, usually cited as Rabbenu Asher. The object of both was to collect all halakhoth having a practical importance, omitting all those which owing to circumstances no longer possess more than an See also:academic See also:interest, and excluding the discussions on them and all agada. Both add notes and explanations of their own, and both have in turn formed the text of commentaries. With the Talmud, the anonymous period of Hebrew literature may be considered to end. Henceforward important works are produced not by schools but by particular teachers, Masorah. who, however, no doubt often represent the opinions of a school. There are two branches of work which partake of both characters, the Masorah and the See also:Liturgy. The name Masorah (Massorah) is usually derived from masar, to See also:hand on, and explained as " tradition." According to others' it is the word found in Ezek. xx. 37, meaning a " fetter." Its object was to See also:fix the biblical text unalterably. It is generally divided into the Great and the Small Masorah, forming together an apparatus criticus which See also:grew up gradually in the course of centuries and now accompanies the text in most MSS. and printed editions to a greater or less extent. There are also See also:separate masoretic See also:treatises. Some system of the kind was necessary to guard against corruptions of copyists, while the care bestowed upon it no doubt reacted so as to enhance the sanctity ascribed to the text. Many apparent puerilities, such as the counting tf letters and the marking of the See also:middle point of books, had a practical use in enabling copyists of MSS. to determine the amount of work done. The See also:registration of anomalies, such as the suspended letters, inverted nuns and larger letters, enabled any one to test the accuracy of a copy. But the work of the Masoretes was much greater than this. Their See also:long lists of the occurrences of words and forms fixed with accuracy the present (Masoretic) text, which they had produced, and were invaluable to subsequent lexicographers, while their system of vowel-points and accents not only gives us the See also:pronunciation and manner of See also:reading traditional about the 7th century A.D., but frequently serves also the purpose of an explanatory commentary. (See further under BIBLE.) Most of the Masorah is anonymous, incledinp the Massekheth Soferim (of various dates from perhaps the 6th to the 9th century) and the Okhlah we-Okhlah, but when the period of anonymous literature ceases, there appear (in the loth century) Ben Asher of See also:Tiberias, the greatest authority on the subject, and his opponent Ben Naphthali. Later on, See also:Jacob 3 In Hebrew 'ran, from the initial letters of Rabbi Shelomoh Yiybagi, a convenient method used by Jewish writers in referring to well-known authors. The name Jarchi, formerly used for Rash', rests on a misunderstanding. 4 So Bacher in J.Q.R. iii. 785 sqq. ben IJayyim arranged the Masorah for the great See also:Bomberg Bible of 1524. See also:Elias Levita's Massoreth ha-Massoreth (1538) and See also:Buxtorf's Tiberias (1620) are also important. We must now turn back to a most difficult subject—the growth of the Liturgy. We are not concerned here with indica-Liturgy. tions of the See also:ritual used in the See also:Temple. Of the See also:prayer- book as it is at present, the earliest parts are the Shema` (Deut. vi. 4, &c.) and the anonymous blessings commonly called Shemoneh `Esreh (the Eighteen), together with certain Psalms. (Readings from the Law and the Prophets [Haphtarah] also formed part of the service.) To this framework were fitted, from time to time, various prayers, and, for festivals especially, numerous See also:hymns. The earliest existing codification of the prayer-book is the Siddur (order) drawn up by See also:Amram See also:Gaon of Sura about 850. See also:Half a century later the famous Gaon See also:Seadiah, also of Sura, issued his Siddur, in which the rubrical matter is in Arabic. Besides the Siddur, or order for Sabbaths and general use, there is the Malhzor (See also:cycle) for festivals and fasts. In both there are ritual See also:differences according to the Sephardic (See also:Spanish), Ashkenazic (See also:German-See also:Polish), See also:Roman (See also:Greek and See also:South See also:Italian) and some minor uses, in the later additions to the Liturgy. The Mallzor of each rite is also distinguished by hymns (piyyutim) composed by authors (payyetanim) of the See also:district. The most important writers are Yoseh ben Yoseh, probably in the 6th century, chiefly known for his compositions for the See also:day of See also:Atonement, Eleazar Qatir, the founder of the payyetanic See also:style, perhaps in the 7th century, Seadiah, and the Spanish school consisting of See also:Joseph See also:ibn Abitur (died in 970), Ibn Gabirol, Isaac Gayyath, Moses ben Ezra, See also:Abraham ben Ezra and Judah ha-See also:levi, who will be mentioned below; later, Moses ben Nahman and Isaac See also:Luria the Kabbalist.' The order of the Amoraim, which ended with the close of the Talmud (A.D. 500), was succeeded by that of the Saboraim, who merely continued and explained the work of their The Geonim. predecessors, and these again were followed by the Geonim, the heads of the schools of Sura and Pu1n- beditha in Babylonia. The See also:office of Gaon lasted for something over 400 years, beginning about A.D. 600, and varied in import- ance according to the ability of the holders of it. Individual Geonim produced valuable works (of which later), but what is perhaps most important from the point of view of the develop- ment of Judaism is the literature of their Responsa or answers to questions, chiefly on halakhic matters, addressed to them from various countries. Some of these were actual decisions of particular Geonim; others were an See also:official See also:summary of the discussion of the subject by the members of the School. They begin with See also:Mar See also:Rab Sheshna (7th century) and continue to See also:Hai Gaon, who died in 1038, and are full of See also:historical and literary interest.2 The She'iltoth (questions) of Rab See also:Altai (8th century) also belong probably to the school of Pumbeditha, though their author was not Gaon. Besides the Responsa, but closely related to them, we have the lesser Halakhoth of Yehudai Gaon of Sura (8th century) and the great Halakhoth of See also:Simeon Qayyara of Sura (not Gaon) in the qth century. In a different See also:department there is the first. Talmud See also:lexicon ('Arukh) now lost, by 7emah ben Paltoi, Gaon of Pumbeditha in the 9th century. The Siddur of Amram ben Sheshna has been already mentioned. All these writers, however, are entirely eclipsed by the commanding See also:personality of the most famous of the Geonim, SEADIAH ben Joseph (q.v.) of Sura, often called al-Fayyumi (of the See also:Fayum in See also:Egypt), one of the greatest representatives of Jewish learning of all times, who died in 942. The last three holders of the office were also distinguished. Sherira of Pumbeditha (d. 998) was the author of the famous "See also:Letter" (in the form of a Responsum to a question addressed to him by residents in See also:Kairawan), an historical document of the highest value and the foundation of our knowledge of the history of tradition. His son Hai, last Gaon of Pumbeditha (d. 1038), a man of wide learning, wrote For the history of the very extensive literature of this class, See also:Zunz, Literaturgeschichte der synagogalen Poesie (See also:Berlin, 1865), is indispensable. a See the edition of them in Harkavy, Studien, iv. (Berlin, 1885).(partly in Arabic) not only numerous Responsa, but also treatises on law, commentaries on the Mishnah and the Bible, a lexicon called in Arabic al-gdwi, and poems such as the Musar Haskel, but most of them are now lost or known only from translations or quotations. Though his teaching was largely directed against superstition, he seems to have been inclined to See also:mysticism, and perhaps for this See also:reason various kabbalistic works were ascribed to him in later times. His See also:father-in-law Samuel ben IJophni, last Gaon of Sura (d. 1034), was a voluminous writer on law, translated the Pentateuch into Arabic, commented on much of the Bible, and composed an Arabic introduction to the Talmud, of which the existing Hebrew introduction (by Samuel the Nagid) is perhaps a translation. Most of his works are now lost. In the Geonic period there came into prominence the See also:sect of the Karaites (Bene migra, " followers of the Scripture ", the Protestants of Judaism, who rejected rabbinical authority, basing their See also:doctrine and practice exclusively on The Karaites. the Bible. The sect was founded by 'Arlan in the 8th century, and, after many vicissitudes, still exists. Their literature, with which alone we are here concerned, is largely polemical and to a great extent deals with See also:grammar and exegesis. Of their first important authors, See also:Benjamin al-Nehawendi and Daniel al-Qumisi (both in the 9th century), little is preserved. In the loth century Jacob al-Qirqisani wrote his Kitab al-anwar, on law, Solomon ben Yerubam (against Seadiah) and Yefet ben `See also:Ali wrote exegetical works; in the iith century See also:Abu'l-faraj Furqan, exegesis, and Yusuf al-Basir against Samuel ben IJophni. Most of these wrote in Arabic. In the 12th century and in S. See also:Europe, Judah Hadassi composed his Eshkol ha-Kopher, a great theological compendium in the form of a commentary on the See also:Decalogue. Other writers are See also:Aaron (the See also:elder) ben Joseph, 13th century, who wrote the commentary Sepher ha-mibhhar; Aaron (the younger) of See also:Nicomedia (r4th century), author of `Er, Ilayyim, on See also:philosophy, Gan `See also:Eden, on law, and the commentary Kether Torah; in the 15th century See also:Elijah Bashyazi, on law (Addereth Eliyahu), and See also:Caleb Efendipoulo, poet and theologian; in the 16th century Moses BashyaA theologian. From the 12th century onward the sect gradually declined, being ultimately restricted mainly to the See also:Crimea and Lithuania, learning disappeared and their literature became merely popular and of little interest: Much of it in later times was written in a curious Tatar See also:dialect. Mention need only be made further of Isaac of Troki, whose See also:anti-Christian polemic llizzuq Emunah (1593) was translated into See also:English by Moses See also:Mocatta under the title of -Faith Strengthened (1851); Solomon of Troki, whose Appiryon, an See also:account of Karaism, was written at the See also:request of See also:Pufendorf (about 1700); and Abraham Firkovich, who, in spite of his impostures, did much for the literature of his people about the middle of the 19th century. (See also See also:QARAITES.) To return to the period of the Geonim. While the schools of Babylonia were flourishing as the religious See also:head of Judaism, the See also:West, and especially See also:Spain under Moorish See also:rule, was becoming the See also:home of Jewish scholarship. On the Medieval breaking up of the schools many of the fugitives fled See also:ship. sip. to the West and helped to promote rabbinical learning there. The communities of Fez, Kairawan and N. See also:Africa were in close relation with those of Spain, and as early as the beginning of the 9th century Judah ben Quraish of Tahort had composed his Risdlah (letter) to the Jews of Fez on grammatical subjects from a See also:comparative point of view, and a See also:dictionary now lost. His work was used in the loth century by 1blenahem ben Saruq, of See also:Cordova, in his Mahbereth (dictionary). See also:Menahem's system of bi-literal and uni-literal roots was violently attacked by See also:Dunash ibn Labrat, and as violently defended by the author's pupils. Among these was Judah IJayyuj of Cordova, the father of modern Hebrew grammar, who first established the principle of tri-literal roots. His treatises on the verbs, written in Arabic, were translated into Hebrew by Moses Giqatilla (11th century), himself a considerable grammarian and commentator, and by Ibn Ezra. His system was adopted by Abu'l-walid ibn Jannah, of See also:Saragossa (died early in the filth century), in his lexicon (Kitab al-usul, in Arabic) and other works. In See also:Italy appeared the invaluable Talmud-lexicon (`Arukh) by Nathan b. Yehiel, of See also:Rome (d. i xo6), who was indirectly indebted to Babylonian teaching. He does not strictly follow the system of IJayyuj. Other works of a different kind also originated in Italy about this time: the very popular history of the Jews, called See also:Josippon (probably of the loth or even 9th century), ascribed to Joseph ben Gorion (Gorionides)'; the medical treatises of Shabbethai Donnolo (loth century) and his commentary on the Sepher Ye;irate, the anonymous and earliest Hebrew kabbalistic work ascribed to the See also:patriarch Abraham. In See also:North Africa, probably in the 9th century, appeared the book known under the name of Eldad ha-Dani, giving an account of the ten tribes, from which much medieval See also:legend was derived; 2 and in Kairawan the medical and philosophical treatises of Isaac See also:Israeli, who died in 932. The aim of the grammatical studies of the Spanish school was ultimately exegesis. This had already been cultivated in the 8xeaesls. See also:East. In the 9th century Hivi of See also:Balkh wrote a rationalistic See also:treatise 3 on difficulties in the Bible, which was refuted by Seadiah. The commentaries of the Geonim have been mentioned above. The impulse to similar work in the West came also from Babylonia. In the loth century Ilushiel, one of four prisoners, perhaps from Babylonia, though that is doubtful, was ransomed and settled at Kairawan, where he acquired great reputation as a Talmudist. His son Hananeel (d. 1050) wrote it commentary on (probably all) the Talmud, and one now lost on the Pentateuch. Hananeel's contemporary Nissim ben Jacob, of Kairawan, who corresponded with Hai Gaon of Pumbeditha as well as with Samuel the Nagid in Spain, likewise wrote on the Talmud, and is probably the author of a collection of Ma'asiyyoth or edifying stories, besides works now lost. The activity in North Africa reacted on Spain. There the most prominent figure was that of Samuel ibn Nagdela (or Nagrela), generally known as Samuel the Nagid or head of the Jewish See also:settlement, who died in 1055. As See also:vizier to the Moorish See also: Rashi was a pupil of Jacob ben Yaqar, and studied at See also:Worms and Mainz. Unlike his contemporaries in Spain, he seems to have confined himself wholly to Jewish learning, and to have known nothing of Arabic or other See also:languages except his native French. Yet no commentator is more valuable or indeed more voluminous, and for the study n Two different texts of it exist: (t) in the ed. pr. (See also:Mantua, 1476); (2) ed. by Seb. See also:Munster (See also:Basel, 1541). There is also an early Arabic recension, but its relation to the Hebrew and to the Arabic 2 See also:Maccabees is still obscure. See J. Q. R., xi. 355 sqq. The Hebrew text was edited with a Latin translation by Breithaupt (See also:Gotha, 1707). 2 On the various recensions of the text see D. H. See also: In the 12th and 13th centuries literature maintained a high level in Spain. Abraham See also:bar Iliyya, known to Christian scholars as Abraham Judaeus (d. about 1136), was a mathematician, astronomer and philosopher much studied in the middle ages. Moses ben Ezra, of Granada (d. about 1140), wrote in Arabic a philosophical work based on Greek and Arabic as well as Jewish authorities, known by the name of the Hebrew translation as 'Arugath ha-bosem, and the See also:Kit¢b al-Mahadarah, of great value for literary history. He is even better known as a poet, for his Diwan and the 'Anaq, and as a hymn-writer. His relative Abraham ben Ezra, generally called simply Ibn Ezra,4 was still more distinguished. Ile was See also:born at Toledo, spent most of his life in travel, wandering even to See also:England and to the East, and died in 1167. Yet he contrived to write his great commentary on the Pentateuch and other books of the Bible, treatises on philosophy (as the Yesodh See also:mora), See also:astronomy, See also:mathematics, grammar (translation of IJayyuj), besides aDiwan. The man, however, who shares with Ibn Gabirol the first See also:place in Jewish See also:poetry is Judah Ha-levi, of Toledo, who died in Jerusalem about 1140. His poems, both See also:secular and religious, contained in his Diwan and scattered in the liturgy, are all in Hebrew, though he employed Arabic metres. In Arabic he wrote his philosophical work, called in the Hebrew translation Sepher ha-Kuzari, a See also:defence of See also:revelation as against non-Jewish philosophy and Qaraite doctrine. It shows considerable knowledge of Greek and Arabic thought (See also:Avicenna). Joseph ibn Migash (d. 1141 at See also:Lucena), a friend of Judah Ha-levi and of Moses ben Ezra, wrote Responsa and IJiddushin (annotations) on parts of the Talmud. In another See also:sphere mention must be made of the travellers Benjamin of See also:Tudela (d. after 1173), whose See also:Massa`6th are of great value for the history and See also:geography of his time, and (though not belonging to Spain) Pethahiah,of See also:Regensburg (d. about 1190), who wrote See also:short notes of his journeys. Abraham ben See also:David, of Toledo (d. about 118o), in philosophy an Aristotelian (through Avicenna) and the precursor of See also:Maimonides, is chiefly known for his Sepher haqabbalah, written as a polemic against Karaism, but valuable for the history of tradition. The greatest of all medieval Jewish scholars was Moses ben See also:MaimOn (Rambam), called Maimonides by Christians. He was born at Cordova in 1135, fled with his parents from persecution in 1148, settled at Fez in 1160, passing there for a Moslem, fled again to Jerusalem in 1165, and finally went to See also:Cairo where he died in 1204. He was distinguished in his profession as a physician, and wrote a number of medical works in Arabic (including a commentary on the aphorisms of See also:Hippocrates), all of which were translated into Hebrew, and most of them into Latin, becoming the text-book, of Europe in the succeeding centuries. But his fame rests mainly on his theological works. Passing over the less important, these are the MOreh Nebhukhim (so the Hebrew translation of the Arabic original), an endeavour to show philosophically the reasonableness of the faith, parts of which, translated into Latin, were studied by the Christian schoolmen, and the Mishneh Torah, also called Yad hahazagah (1'=14, the number of the parts), a classified compendium of the Law, written in Hebrew 4 See M. Friedlander in Publications of the Society of Hebrew Lit., 1st See also:ser. vol. i., and 2nd ser. vol. iv. See also:Malmo-aides. and early translated into Arabic. The latter of these, though generally accepted in the East, was much opposed in the West, especially at the time by the Talmudist Abraham ben David of Posquieres (d. rr98). Maimonides also wrote an Arabic commentary on the Mishnah, soon afterwards translated into Malmo- Hebrew, commentaries on parts of the Talmud (now mists and lost), and a treatise on See also:Logic. His breadth of view anrA and his Aristotelianism were a stumbling-See also:block to the mamas- orthodox, and subsequent teachers may be mostly nlsts. classified as Maimonists or anti-Maimonists. Even his friend Joseph ibn 'Aqnin (d. 1226), author of a philosophical treatise in Arabic and of a commentary on the Song of Solomon, found so much difficulty in the new views that the Moreh Nebhukhim was written in order to convince him. Maimonides' son Abraham (d. 1234), also a great Talmudist, wrote in Arabic Ma'aseh Yerushalmi, on oaths, and Kilab al-Kifayah, See also:theology. His See also:grandson David was also an author. A very different See also:person was Moses ben Nahman (Ramban) or Nahmanides, who was born at See also:Gerona in 1194 and died in Palestine about 1270. His whole tendency was as conservative as that of Maimonides was liberal, and like all conservatives he may be said to represent a lost though not necessarily a less desirable cause. Much of his life was spent in controversy, not only with Christians (in 1293 before the king of See also:Aragon), but also with his own people and on the views of the time. His greatest work is the commentary on the Pentateuch in opposition to Maimonides and Ibn Ezra. He had a strong inclination to mysticism, but whether certain kabbalistic works are rightly attributed to him is doubtful. It is, however, not a See also:mere coincidence that the two great kabbalistic text-books, the Bahir and the Zohar (both meaning " brightness "), appear first in the 13th century. If not due to his teaching they are at least in sympathy with it. The Bahir, a sort of outline of the Zohar, and traditionally ascribed to Nel unya (1st century), is believed by some to be the work of Isaac the See also:Blind ben Abraham of Posquieres (d. early in the 13th century), the founder of the modern See also:Kabbalah and the author of the names for the ro Sephiroth. The Zoltar, supposed to be by Simeon ben Yolhai (2nd century), is now generally attributed to Moses of See also:Leon (d. 1305), who, however, See also:drew his material in part from earlier written or traditional See also:sources, such as the Sepher YeVrah. At any See also:rate the work was immediately accepted by the kabbalists, and has formed the basis of all subsequent study of the subject. Though put into the form of a commentary on the Pentateuch, it is really an exposition of the kabbalistic view of the universe, and incidentally shows considerable acquaintance with the natural See also:science of the. time. A pupil, though not a follower of Nahmanides, was Solomon Adreth (not Addereth), of See also:Barcelona (d. 1310), a prolific writer of Talmudic and polemical works (against the Kabbalists and Mahommedans) as well as of responsa. He was opposed by Abraham Abulafia (d. about 1291) and his pupil Joseph Giqatilla (d. about 1305), the author of numerous kabbalistic works. Solomon's pupil Bahya ben Asher, of Saragossa (d. 1340) was the author of a very popular commentary on the Pentateuch and of religious discourses entitled Kad ha-gemah, in both of which, unlike his teacher, he made large use of the Kabbalah. Other studies, however, were not neglected. In the first half of the 13th century, Abraham ibn Uasdai, a vigorous supporter of Maimonides, translated (or adapted) a large number of philosophical works from Arabic, among them being the Sepher ha-tappuah, based on See also:Aristotle's de Anima, and the MOzene edeq of Ghazzali on moral philosophy, of both of which the originals are lost. Another Maimonist was See also:Shem Tobh ben Joseph Falaquera (d. after 1290), philosopher (following See also:Averroes), poet and author of a commentary on the Moreh. A curious mixture of mysticism and Aristotelianism is seen in Isaac Aboab (about 1300), whose Menorath ha-Ma'Or, a collection of agadoth, attained great popularity and has been frequently printed and translated. Somewhat earlier in the 13th century lived Judah al-Uarizi, who belongs in spirit to the time of Ibn Gabirol and Judah ha-levi. He wrote numerous translations, of See also:Galen, Aristotle, Uariri, Uunain ben Isaac and Maimonides, as well as several original works, a Sepher 'Anaq in See also:imitation of Moses ben Ezra, and treatises on grammar' and See also:medicine (Rephuath geviyyah), but he is best known for his Tahkemoni, a diwan in the style of Uariri's Magamat. Meanwhile the literary activity of the Jews in Spain had its effect on those of See also:France. The fact that many of the most important works were written in Arabic, the vernacular of the Spanish Jews under the See also:Moors, which was not understood in France, gave rise to a number of translations into Hebrew, chiefly by the See also:family of Ibn Tibbon (or Tabbon). The first of them, Judah ibn Tibbon, translated works of Bahya ibn Paqudah, Judah ha-levi, Seadiah, Abu'lwalid and Ibn Gabirol, besides writing works of his own. He was a native of Granada, but migrated to Lunel, where he probably died about 1190. His son Samuel, who died at See also:Marseilles about 1230, was equally prolific. He translated the Moreh Nebhukhim during the life of the author, and with some help from him, so that this may be regarded as the authorized version; Maimonides' commentary on the Mishnah tractate Pirge Abhoth, and some minor works; treatises of Averroes and other Arabic authors. His original works are mostly biblical commentaries and some additional matter on the MOreh. His son Moses, who died about the end of the 13th century, translated the rest of Maimonides, much of Averroes, the lesser Canon of Avicenna, See also:Euclid's Elements (from the Arabic version), Ibn al-Jazzar's See also:Viaticum, medical works of Iiunain ben Isaac (Johannitius) and Razi (Rhazes), besides works of less-known Arabic authors. His original works are commentaries and perhaps a treatise on See also:immortality. His See also:nephew Jacob ben Makhir, of See also:Montpellier (d. about 1304), translated Arabic scientific works, such as parts of Averroes and Ghazzali, Arabic versions from the Greek, as Euclid's Data, See also:Autolycus, See also:Menelaus (or5'n) and See also:Theodosius on the Sphere, and See also:Ptolemy's Almagest. He also compiled astronomical tables and a treatise on the quadrant. The great importance of these translations is that many of them were afterwards rendered into Latin,' thus making Arabic and, through it, Greek learning accessible to medieval Europe. Another important family about this time is that of Qimhi (or Qamhi). It also originated in Spain, where Joseph ben Isaac Qimhi was born, who migrated. to S. France, probably for the same reason which caused the See also:flight of Maimonides, and died there about 1170. He wrote. on grammar (Sepher ha-galui and Sepher Zikkaron), commentaries on Proverbs and the Song of Solomon, an apologetic work, Sepher ha-berith, and a translation of Bahya'sHobhoth ha-lebhabhoth. His son Moses (d. about 1190) also wrote on grammar and some commentaries, wrongly attributed to Ibn Ezra. A younger son, David (Radaq) of Narbonne (d. 1235) is the most famous of the name. His great work, the Mikhlol, consists of a grammar and lexicon; his commentaries on various parts of the Bible are admirably luminous, and, in spite of his anti-Christian remarks, have been widely used by Christian theologians and largely influenced the English authorized version of the Bible. A friend of Joseph Qimhi, Jacob ben Me'ir, known as Rabbenu Tam of Ramerupt (d. 1171), the grandson of Rashi, wrote the Sepher ha-yashar (hiddushin and responsa) and was one of the See also:chief Tosaphists. Of the same school were Menahem ben Simeon of Posquieres, a commentator, who died about the end of the 12th century, and Moses ben Jacob of Coney (13th century), author of the Semag (book of precepts, See also:positive and negative) a very popular and valuable halakhic work. A younger contemporary of David Qimhi was Abraham ben Isaac Bedersi (i.e. of See also:Beziers), the poet, and some time in the 13th century lived Joseph Ezobhi of See also:Perpignan, whose ethical poem, Qe'arath Yoseph, was translated by See also:Reuchlin and later by' others. Berachiah,2 the compiler of the " See also:Fox Fables " (which have much in See also:common with the " Ysopet " of See also:Marie de France), is generally thought to have lived in See also:Provence in the 13th century, but according to others in England in the 12th century. In See also:Germany, Eleazar ben Judah of Worms (d. 1238), besides being ' The fullest account of them is to be found in See also:Steinschneider's Hebrdische Ubersetzungen See also:des Mitlelalters (Berlin, 1893). 2 See H. Gollancz, The Ethical Treatises of Berachya (See also:London, 1902). a Talmudist, was an See also:earnest See also:promoter of kabbalistic studies. ibn Shem Tobh, the kabbalist, was a strong anti-Maimonist, Isaac ben Moses (d. about 1270), who had studied in France, wrote the famous Or Zarua' (from which he is often called), an halakhic work somewhat resembling Maimonides' Mishneh Torah, but more diffuse. In the course of his wanderings he settled for a time at Wiirzburg, where he had as a pupil Me'ir of Rothenburg (d. 1293). The latter was a prolific writer of great influence, chiefly known for his Responsa, but also for his halakhic treatises, hiddushin and tosaphoth. He also composed a number of piyyutim. He'ir's pupil, Mordecai ben Hillel of Nurnberg (d. 1298), had an even greater influence through his halakhic work, usually known as the Mordekhai. This is a codification of halakhoth, based on all the authorities then known, some of them now lost. Owing to the fact that the material collected by Mordecai was See also:left to his pupils to arrange, the work was current in two recensions, an Eastern (in See also:Austria) and a Western (in Germany, France, &c.). In the East, Tanhum ben Joseph of Jerusalem was the author of commentaries (not to be confounded with the Midrash Tanhuma) on many books of the Bible, and of an extensive lexicon (Kitab al-Murshid) to the Mishnah, all in Arabic. With the 13th century Hebrew literature may, be said to have reached the limit of its development. Later writers to a large extent used over again the materials of their predecessors, while secular works tend to be influenced by the surrounding See also:civilization, or even are composed in the vernacular •...nguages. From the i4th century onward only the most notable names can be mentioned. In Italy Immanuel ben Solomon, of Rome (d. about 1330), perhaps the friend and certainly the imitator of See also:Dante, wrote his diwan, of which the last part, " Topheth ve-'Eden," is suggested by the Divina Commedia. In Spain Israel Israeli, of Toledo (d. 1326), was a translator and the author of an Arabic work on ritual and a commentary on Pirqe Abhoth. About the same time Isaac Israeli wrote his YesOdh 'Olam and other astronomical works which were much studied. Asher ben Jehiel, a pupil of Me'ir of Rothenburg, was the author of the popular Talmudic compendium, generally quoted as Rabbenu Asher, on the lines of Alfasi, besides other halakhic works. He migrated from Germany and settled at Toledo, where he died in 1328. His son Jacob, of Toledo (d. 1340), was the author of the Tar (or the four See also:Tarim), a most important See also:manual of Jewish law, serving as an abridgement of the Mishneh Torah brought up to date. His pupil David Abudrahim, of See also:Seville (d. after x34o), wrote a commentary on the liturgy. Both the 14th and 15th centuries in Spain were largely' taken up with controversy, as by Isaac ibn See also:Pulgar (about 1350), and Shem Tobh ibn Shaprut (about 1380), who translated St See also:Matthew's gospel into Hebrew. In France Jcdaiah Bedersi, i.e. of Beziers (d. about 1340), wrote poems (Behinath ha-Wain), commentaries on agada and a defence of Maimonides against Solomon Adreth. Levi ben Gershom (d. 1344), called Ralbag, the great commentator on the Bible and Talmud, in philosophy a follower of Aristotle and Averroes, known to Christians as See also:Leo Hebraeus, wrote also many works on halakhah, mathematics and astronomy. Joseph Kaspi, i.e. of See also:Largentiere (d. 1340), wrote a large number of treatises on grammar and philosophy (mystical), besides commentaries and piyyutim. In the first half of the 14th century lived the two translators Qalonymos ben David and Qalonymos ben Qalonymos, the latter of whom translated many works of Galen and Averroes, and various scientific treatises, besides writing original works, e.g. one against Kaspi, and an ethical work entitled Eben Bohan. At the end of the century Isaac ben Moses, called Profiat See also:Duran (Efodi), is chiefly known as an anti-Christian controversialist (letter to Me'ir Alguadez), but also wrote on grammar (Ma'aseh Efod) and a commentary on the MOreh. In philosophy he was an Aristotelian. About the same time in Spain controversy was very active. IJasdai See also:Crescas (d. 1410) wrote against See also:Christianity and in his Or AdOnai against the Aristotelianism of the Maimonists. His pupil Joseph Albo in his 'Iggarim had the same two See also:objects. On the See also:side of the Maimonists was Simeon Duran (d. at See also:Algiers 1444) in his Magen Abhoth and in his numerous commentaries. Shem Tobh as was his son Joseph of See also:Castile (d. 1480), a commentator with kabbalistic tendencies but versed in Aristotle, Averroes and Christian doctrine. Joseph's son Shem Tobh was, on the contrary, a follower of Maimonides and the Aristotelians. In other subjects, Saadyah ibn Danan, of Granada (d. at See also:Oran after 1473), is chiefly important for his grammar and lexicon, in Arabic; Judah ibn See also:Verga, of Seville (d. after 1480), was a mathematician and astronomer; Solomon ibn Verga, somewhat later, wrote Shebet Yehudah, of doubtful value historically; Abraham Zakkuth or Zakkuto, of See also:Salamanca (d. after 1510), astronomer, wrote the Sephel Yabasin, an historical work of importance. In Italy, Obadiah See also:Bertinoro (d. about 1500) compiled his very useful commentary on the Mishnah, based on those of Rashi and Maimonides. His account of his travels and his letters are also of great interest. Isaac Abravanel (d. 15o8) wrote commentaries (not of the first See also:rank) on the Pentateuch and Prophets and on the MOreh, philosophical treatises and See also:apologetics, such as the Yeshu'oth Meshiho, all of which had considerable influence. Elijah See also:Delmedigo, of See also:Crete (d. 1497), a strong opponent of Kabbalah, was the author of the philosophical treatise Behinath ha-dath, but most of his work (on Averroes) was in Latin. The introduction of printing (first dated Hebrew printed book, Rashi, Reggio, 1475) gave occasion for a number of scholarly compositors and See also:proof-readers, some of whom were also authors, such as Jacob ben Hayyim of See also:Tunis Later writers. (d. about 1530), proof-reader to Bomberg, chiefly known for his masoretic work in connexion with the Rabbinic Bible and his introduction to it; Elias Levita, of Venice (d. 1549), also proof-reader to Bomberg, author of the Massoreth ha-Massoreth and other works on grammar and lexicography; and See also:Cornelius Adelkind, who however was not an author. In the East, Joseph Karo (See also:Qaro) wrote his Beth Yoseph (Venice, 1550), a commentary on the Tur, and his Shulhan 'Arukh (Venice, 1564) an halakhic work like the Tier, which is still a See also:standard authority. The influence of non-Jewish methods is seen in the more modern tendency of See also:Azariah dei See also:Rossi, who was opposeci by Joseph Karo. In his Me'Or 'Enayim (Mantua, 1573) Del Rossi endeavoured to investigate Jewish history in a scientific spirit, with the aid of non-Jewish authorities, and even criticizes Talmudic and traditional statements. Another historian living also in Italy was Joseph ben See also:Joshua, whose Dibhre ha-yamiin (Venice, 1534) is a sort of history of the See also:world, and his 'Emeq ha-bakhah an account of Jewish troubles to the See also:year 1575. In Germany David See also:Gans wrote on astronomy, and also the historical work Zemah David (Prag, 1592). The study of Kabbalah was promoted and the practical Kabbalah founded by Isaac Luria in Palestine (d. 1572). Numerous works, representing the extreme of mysticism, were published by his pupils as the result of his teaching. Foremost among these was Hayyim Vital, author of the 'Ez bayyim, and his son Samuel, who wrote an introduction to the .Kabbalah, called Shemoneh She'arim. To the same school• belonged Moses Zakkuto, of Mantua (d. 1697), poet and kabbalist. Contemporary with Luria and also living at Safed, was Moses Cordovero (d. 157o), the kabbalist, whose chief work was the Pardes Rimmonim (See also:Cracow, 1591). In the 17th century Leon of See also:Modena (d. 1648) wrote his Beth Yehudah, and probably Qol Sakhal, against traditionalism, besides many controversial works and commentaries. Joseph Delmedigo, of Prag (d. 1655), wrote almost entirely on scientific subjects. Also connected with Prag was YOm Tobh Lipmann See also:Heller, a voluminous author, best known for the Tosaphoth Yom Tobh on the Mishna (Prag, 1614; Cracow, 1643). Another important Talmudist, Shabbethai ben Me'ir, of Wilna (d. 1662), commented on the Shulhan 'Arukh. In the East, David Conforte (d. about 1685) wrote the historical work Qore ha-doroth (Venice, 1746), using Jewish and other sources; Jacob ben Hayyim Zemah, kabbalist and student of Luria, wrote Qol be-ramah, a commentary on the Zohar and on the liturgy; Abraham Hayekini, kabbalist, chiefly remembered as a supporter of the would-be See also:Messiah, Shabbethai Zebhi, wrote Hod Malkflth (See also:Constantinople, 1655) and sermons. In the 18th century the study of the kabbalah was cultivated by Moses Hayyim See also:Luzzatto (d. 1747) and by Elijah ben Solomon, called Gaon, of Wilna (d. 1797), who commented on the whole Bible and on many Talmudic and kabbalistic works. In spite of his own leaning towards mysticism he was a strong opponent of the Hasidim, a mystical sect founded by Israel See also:Baal Shem Tobh (Besht) and promoted by See also:Baer of Meseritz. Elijah's son Abraham (d. 18o8), the commentator, is valuable for his work on Midrash. An historical work which makes an See also:attempt to be scientific, is the Seder ha-doroth of Yehiel Heilprin (d. 1746). These, however, belong in spirit to the previous century. The characteristic of the 18th and 19th centuries is the endeavour, connected with the name of Moses Mendelssohn, to modern- bring Judaism more into relation with See also:external tstng learning, and in using the Hebrew language to purify tend- and develop it in accordance with the biblical standard. encles. The result, while linguistically more uniform and pleasing, often lacks the spontaneity of medieval literature. It was Moses Mendelssohn's German translation of the Pentateuch (1780-1793) which marked the new spirit, while the views of his opponents belong to a bygone See also:age. In fact the controversy of which he was the centre may fitly be compared with the earlier battles between the Maimonists and anti-Maimonists. One of the most remarkable writers of the new Hebrew was Mendelssohn's friend N. H. Wessely, of See also:Hamburg (d. 1805), author of See also:Shire Tiphe'reth, a long poem on the Exodus, Dibhre Shalom, a plea for liberalism, Sepher ha-middoth, on See also:ethics, besides philological works and commentaries. A curious See also:combination of new and old was Hayyim Azulai (d. 1807), a kabbalist, but also the author of Shem ha-gedholim, a valuable contribution to literary history. In the 19th century the modernizing tendency continued to grow, though always side by side with a strong conservative opposition, and the most prominent names on both sides are those of scholars rather than literary men. Among them may be mentioned, Akiba ('Aqibha) See also:Eger (d. 1837), Talmudist of the orthodox, conservative school; W. See also:Heidenheim (d. 1832), a liberal, and editor of the Pentateuch and Mahzor; N. See also:Krochmal, of See also:Galicia (d. 184o), author of Moreh Nebhukhe ha-zeman, on Jewish history and literature; his son Abraham (d. 1895), conservative commentator and philosopher. One consequence of the Mendelssohn See also:movement was that many writers used their vernacular language besides or instead of Hebrew, or translated from one to the other. Thus Isaac Samuel Reggio (d. 1855), a strong liberal, wrote both in Hebrew and Italian; Joseph Almanzi, of See also:Padua (d. r86o), a poet, translated Italian poems into Hebrew; S. D. Luzzatto, of Padua (d. 1865), a distinguished See also:scholar and opponent of the philosophy of Maimonides, wrote much in Italian; M. H. Letteris, of Vienna (d. 1871), translated German poems into Hebrew; S. Bacher, of See also:Hungary (d. 1891), was a poet and moderate liberal; L. See also:Gordon (d. 1892), poet and See also:prose-writer in Hebrew and See also:Russian, of liberal views; A. Jellinek, of Vienna (d. 1893), preacher and. scholar; Jacob Reifmann (d. 1895), scholar, wrote only in Hebrew. The endeavour to bring Judaism into relation with the modern world and to See also:change the current impressions about Jews by making their teaching accessible to the rest of the world, is connected chiefly with the names of Z. See also:Frankel (d. 1875), the first Jewish scholar to study the See also:Septuagint; Abraham Geiger (d. 1874), critic of the first rank; L. Zunz (d. 1884) and L. Dukes (d. 1891), both scholarly investigators of Jewish literary history. Their most important works are in German. The question of the use of the vernacular or of Hebrew is See also:bound up with the differences between the orthodox and the liberal or reform parties, complicated by the many problems involved. Patriotic efforts are made to encourage the use of Hebrew both for writing and speaking, but the continued existence of it as a literary language depends on the direction in which the future history of the Jews will develop. See also:Introductory: Abrahams, Short History of Jewish Literature (London, 1906); Steinschneider, Jewish Literature (London, 1857); See also:Winter and Wiinsche, See also:Die jiidische Literatur (Leipzig, 1893–1895) (containing selections translated into German). For further study: See also:Graetz, Geschichte der Juden (Leipzig, 1853, &c.) (the volumes are in various editions), with See also:special reference to the notes; English translation by B. Lowy (London, 1891–1892) (without the notes) ; Zunz, Gottesdienstliche Vortrage der Juden (new ed., See also:Frankfort-on-Main, 1892) ; Zur Geschichte and Literatur (Berlin, 1845). The Synagogale Poesie has been mentioned above. Steinschneider, Arabische Literatur der Juden (Frankfort-on-Main, 1902); Hebrdische Ubersetzungen des Mittelalters (Berlin, 1893). On particular authors and subjects there are many excellent monographs in the Jewish See also:Encyclopaedia (New See also:York, 1901–6) , to which the present See also:article is much indebted. Bibliographies of printed books: Steinschneider, Catalogus libr. Hebr. in Bibl. Bodleiana (Berlin, 1852–1860) (more than a See also:catalogue) ; Zedner, Catalogue of the Hebr. Books in the See also:British Museum (London, 1867; continued by See also:van Straalen, London, 1894). Of See also:manuscripts: Neubauer, Catal. of the Hebrew MSS. in the Bodleian Library (See also:Oxford, 1886), vol. ii. by Neubauer and See also:Cowley (Oxford, 1906); G. Margoliouth, Catal. of the Hebr. . MSS. in the British Museum (London, 1899, &c.). Of both: Benjacob, Ozar ha-sepharim (Wilna, 188o) (in Hebrew; arranged by titles). See also:Periodicals: Jewish Quarterly Review; Revue des etudes juives; Hebrdische Bibliograpliie. (A. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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