See also:

• HEBREW

Similarly in Gen. xiii. 18, xiv. 13, xviii. 1, the See also:

• SEPTUAGINT, THE (Gr. of 0', Lat. LXX.)

So far as concerns the See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

It would be reasonable to assume that Moab, Ammon, Edom and kindred tribes of Israel in the 15th and preceding centuries were included in the generic See also:

• TERM

7 to See also:

• DAGON

137; K.A.T. (3rd ed.), p. 472 See also:

• FOIL

' The Tell el-Amarna despatches are crowded with evidences of Canaanite forms and idioms impressed on the Babylonian See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

In this case the counterspell assumed a different form. Westermarck has shown from his observations in See also:

• MOROCCO

33 foil., have abandoned the theory as applied to Israel.' On the other hand, the See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

That they were employed in See also:

• DIVINATION
• DIVINATION, OMEN, ASTROLOGY

See See also:

• STANLEY (FAMILY)
• STANLEY, ARTHUR PENRHYN (18x5–1881)
• STANLEY, EDWARD (1779-1849)
• STANLEY, SIR HENRY MORTON (184o-1904)
• STANLEY, SIR WILLIAM (1548-163o)
• STANLEY, THOMAS (1625-1678)

The subsequent discovery of a document written in Babylonian cuneiform at See also:

• LACHISH

3. The Era of Moses.—We are now on safer ground though still obscure. Moses was the first historic individuality who can be said to have welded the Israelite clans into a whole. This could never have been accomplished without unity of worship. The object of this worship was Yahweh. As we have already indicated, the document J assumes that Yahweh was worshipped by the Hebrew race from the first. On the other hand, according to P (Ex. vi. 2), God spake to Moses and said to him: " I am Yahweh. But I appeared to See also:

• ABRAHAM, or ABRAM (Hebrew for " father is high ")

It was the See also:

• SIGNAL

See also See also:

• BIRCH
• BIRCH (Betula)
• BIRCH, SAMUEL (1813–1885)
• BIRCH, THOMAS (1705-1766)

The atmospheric and celestial character which belonged from the first to the Hebrew conception of Yahweh explains to us the ease with which the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

Jeremias, Das A. T. im Lichte des alten Orients (2nd ed.), pp. 182-187. Marti, in his stimulating See also:

• WORK

In opposition to Meinhold, see Lotz in P.R.E. (3rd ed., See also:

• ART

The sacredness of the number seven is based on the seven planetary deities to whom each day of the See also:

• WEEK (from A.S. wicu, Germanic *wikon, probably=change, turn)

2. xxiii. to foil.; cf. Ex. xxxiv. 21. We therefore hold that the See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

634. The most strongly distinguishing feature of the code is the rigid exclusion of the worship of other gods than Yahweh. Moreover, the definitely ethical character of the religion of Yahweh established by Moses is exhibited in the strict exclusion of all sexual impurity in His worship. Unlike the Canaanite Baal, Yahweh hasnofemale See also:

• CONSORT (Lat. consors, a companion)

4. Influence of Canaan.—The entrance of Israel into Canaan marks the beginning of a new See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

On this subject of Babylonian influence over Israel see Jeremias, Monotheislische Stromungen innerhalb der babylonischen Religion, and E. Baentsch, Altorientalischer u. israelitischer Monotheismus. The text and rendering of the passage are doubtful in the cuneiform See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

The last and most characteristic festival of Canaanite life was that of Asiph or " ingathering " which after the Deuteronomic See also:

• REFORMATION
• REFORMATION, THE

6; 2 Sam. xxiii. 16) belonged to early nomadic Israel (as seems probable) it is not possible to determine with any certainty. Again, the conception of Yahweh suffered modification. In the desert he was worshipped as an atmospheric deity, who manifested himself in thunder and lightning, whose See also:

• ABODE (from " abide," to dwell, properly " to wait for ," to bide)

10-12) or by a thunderstorm (I Sam. xii. 18) or through a See also:

• DREAM (from a root dreug, connected with Germ. trugen, to deceive)

But the symbol carried with it the numen of the goddess symbolized, and there can be little doubt that Asherah came to be regarded as Yahweh's consort. In the days of Manasseh syncretism went on unchecked even in the See also:

• JERUSALEM (Heb. ^S0-r, Yerushalaim, pronounced as a dual)
• JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF (1672)

24-28. The inhabitants of Babylonia and other regions whom the Assyrian kings had settled in Ephraim after 721 B.C. (cf. See also:

• EZRA (from a Hebrew word meaning " help ")
• EZRA, FOURTH BOOK (or APOCALYPSE) OF
• EZRA, THIRD BOOK OF [I Esdras]

Times of peace meant national disintegration and the See also:

• LAPSE (Lat. lapses, a slip or departure)

128, 30, 31, iv. 47, 48, &c. Probably we should regard them as differentiated hypostases. ' Hence the 'Ashtoroth or offspring of flocks in Deut. vii. 13, xxviii. 18. A like See also:

• FUNCTION

258.Israelite tribes by the rallying cry " the See also:

• SWORD (0. Eng. sweord; ultimately from an Indo-European root meaning to wound)

27). In other words, the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

It is probable that in some primitive sanctuaries no real distinction was made between this stone-pillar and the altar or place where the animal was slaughtered. In ordinary pre-exilian high places the custom described in the primitive compend of laws (Ex. xx. 24) would be observed. A See also:

• MOUND

(On this subject of See also:

• HOLY

In the primitive codes, Ex. xx. 22-xxiii. 19 (E), xxxiv. Io-28 (J), we have no allusion to any separate order of men who were qualified to offer sacrifices. In Ex. xxiv. 5 (E) we read that Moses simply commissioned See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

There can be no reasonable doubt that the Levite here was member of a priestly tribe or order, and this view is confirmed by the discovery of what is really the same word in south Arabian inscriptions.2 The narrative is of some value as it shows that while it was possible to appoint any one as a priest, since Micah, like David, appointed one of his own sons (xvii. 5), yet a special priest-tribe or order also existed, and Micah considered that the acquisition of one of its members was for his household a very exceptional See also:

• ADVANTAGE

Judges viii. 26, 27) and the latter were ancestral images (see Marti, op. cit. pp. 27, 29; Harper, Int. See also:

• COMM

The chief and most salient characteristic of the worship of the high places was geniality. The sacrifice was a feast of social communion between the deity and his worshippers, Geniality and knit both deity and clan-members together in of wor- See also:

• SHIP

Crit Commentary, Judges, Introd. p. See also:

• XXX

27; I Sam. 14-16; Isa. xxviii. 7, 8. Against this tendency the Nazirite order and tradition was a protest. Cf. Amos ii. 11 foil.; Judges xiii. 7, 14. As certain sanctuaries, Shiloh, Shechem, Bethel, &c., See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

46, xliii. 19, xliv. 15; cf. I Kings ii. 27, 35). His descent, however, from Eleazar, the See also:

• ELDER (0. Eng. ellarn; Ger. Holunder; Fr. sureau)
• ELDER (Gr. 1rpev(3iTepos)

The lifeand-death struggle between Israel and the Philistines in the reign of Saul called forth under Samuel's leadership a new order of " men of God," who were called " prophets " or divinely inspired speakers. These men were distributed in various settlements, and their exercises were usually of an ecstatic character. The closest See also:

• MODERN

Thus r Sam. xix. 2o, 23 et seq. show that Samuel was regarded as head of the prophetic settlement at Naiath. With reference to Elijah and Elisha, see 2 Kings ii. 3, 5, 15, iv. 1, 38 et seq., vi. I et seq. There cannot be any doubt that 6 Similarly in ancient See also:

• GREECE

6 Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentums (2nd ed.), p. 89. 6 Though this be an interpolated See also:

• GLOSS, GLOSSARY

We again find Elisha intervening with effect on behalf of Israel in the See also:

• WARS

For Elijah was in this case obviously no originator or innovator. He represents the old ethical Mosaism, which had not disappeared from the national consciousness, but still remained as the moral pre-supposition on which the prophets of the following century based their appeals and denunciations. It is highly significant that Elijah, when driven from the northern kingdom by the threats of the Tyrian Jezebel, retreats to the old sanctuary at Horeb, whence Moses derived his See also:

• INSPIRATION (Lat. inspirare, breathe upon or into)

This is due to the fact that it for the first time unfolded the true character of Yahweh, implicit in the old Mosaic religion and submerged in the subsequent centuries of Israel's life in Canaan, but now at length made clear and explicit to the mind of the In Isa. iii. 2 the soothsayer is placed on a level with the See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

There were pre-existent ideas upon which that prophet's epoch-making See also:

• MESSAGE (a word occurring in slightly different forms in several languages, e.g. Fr. message, Span. mensaje, Ital. messagio; adapted from the Low Lat. missaticum, from mittere)

At that time Stade's position might have appeared reasonable. It was the conclusion to which Wellhausen's brilliant literary analysis, when not supplemented by the discoveries at Tell el-Amarna and Tell el-Hesi, appeared to many scholars (by no means all) inevitably to conduct us. But the years 1887 to 1891 opened many eyes to the fact that the Hebrews lived their life on the great highways of intercourse between Egypt on the one hand, and Babylonia, Assyria and the N. Palestimau. states on the other, and that they could scarcely have escaped the all-pervading Babylonian influences of 2000–1400 B.C. It is now becoming clearer every day, especially since the discovery of the laws of Khammurabi, that, if we are to think sanely about Hebrew history before as well as after the See also:

• EXILE (Lat. exsilium or exilium, from exsul or exul, which is derived from ex, out of, and the root sal, to go, seen in salire, to leap, consul, &c.; the connexion with solum, soil, country is now generally considered wrong)

33-35). This problem of religion was solved by Amos and by the prophets who succeeded him through a more exalted conception of Yahweh and His sphere of working, which tended to detach Him from His limited realm as a national deity. Amos exhibited Him to his countrymen as lord of the universe, who made the seven stars and See also:

• ORION
• ORION (or OARION)

25; cf. Jer. vii. 22) played no part in Mosaic religion. In words which evidently impressed his younger contemporary Isaiah (cf. esp. Is. chap. i. 11-17), Amos denounced the non-ethical ceremonial formalism of his countrymen which then prevailed (chap. v. 21 foil.): " I hate, I contemn your festivals and in your feasts I delight not; for when you offer me your burnt-offerings and gifts, I do not regard them with favour and your fatted peace-offerings I will not look at. Take away from me the clamour of your songs; and the music of your viols I will not hear. But let judgment See also:

• ROLL (O. Fr. rolle, roulle, mod. role, Lat. rotulus, dim. of rota, wheel)
• ROLL, ALFRED PHILIPPE (1846– )

And so Yahweh's See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

Assyria is the " hired See also:

• RAZOR (O.F. razor, mod. rasoir, from racer, to scrape, rase, Late Lat. rasare, frequentative of radere, to scrape)

16, 17). The religion of the Hebrew race—properly the See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

To this age alone can we probably assign Isa. ix. 1-7, xi. 1-9, xxxii. 1-3. The hopes expressed in the word Immanuel, " God with us," were to become embodied in a personality of the royal See also:

• SEED (from the root seen in Lat. serere, to sow)

It is not to be supposed that either Amos or Isaiah would have countenanced the See also:

• TOTAL

The outlook appeared indeed far darker to Jeremiah than it seemed more than a century before to Isaiah in the evil days of Jotham and Ahaz, " when the whole head was sick and the whole See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

5 foil.): " I will give them an heart to know me that I am the Lord " (verse q). Ezekiel, who borrowed both Jeremiah's language and ideas, expresses the same thought in the well-known words that Yahweh would give the people instead of a heart of stone a heart of flesh (Ezek. xi. r9, 20, XX. 40 foil., See also:

• XXXVI

4). Neither See also:

• NOAH (ni, rest; Septuagint, New Testament, Philo, Josephus, Na*, N&i os, Nweos: Vulg. Noe)

In the Deutero-Isaiah (chaps. xl.-lv.) we have no longer a Jewish but a foreign messiah. The onward progress of the See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

The " servant of Yahweh " presents one aspect of the problem and its attempted solution, the book of Job another, while in the Psalms, e.g. Pss. xxii., xlii.-xliii., lxxiii., lxxvii., other phases of the problem are presented. In the Deutero-Isaiah the meaning of Israel's sufferings is exhibited as vicarious. Israel is suffering for a great end. He suffers, is despised, rejected, chastened and afflicted that others may be blessed and be at peace through his chastisement. This See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

To this is united the noble ideal of the suffering servant, which serves both as a contribution to the great problem of suffering as purifying and vicarious and as the See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

receive ampler and more splendid exposition than in the great lyrical passages of chap. xl. It marks the highest point to which the Hebrew race attained in its progress from henotheism to monotheism. Here again we see the wholesome influences of the exile. The Jew had passed from the narrow confines of his homeland into a wider world, and this larger See also:

• VISION (from Lat. videre, to see), or SIGHT

In all See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

13-17), we now have the strict prohibition of any employment whatever of the stone-symbol (See also:

• ALA

A further consequence directly followed from the See also:

• LIMITATION, STATUTES OF

It should be noted, however, that the spirit of brotherly love was confined within national barriers. It did not operate as a rule beyond the limits of race. The book of Deuteronomy, in See also:

• CONJUNCTION (from Lat. conjungere, to join together)

The flesh of a dead (unslaughtered) beast is not to be eaten, but it may be given to the " stranger within the See also:

• GATES, HORATIO (1728-1806)

Jeremiah, when he foretold the destruction of the external state and temple ritual, found no resource save in a reconstruction that was internal and spiritual. In this he was true to his prophetic impulse and See also:

• GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere)

Commentary on Deuteronomy, Introd. p. xxx. 3 It should be noted that in P (Code of Holiness) Lev. xvii. 15 foil. the resident alien (ger) is placed on an equality with the Jew. the midnight darkness of Israel's exile to prepare for the nation's renewed life. The external bases of Israel's religion had been swept away, and in See also:

• EXCHANGE

15 loll.). The Levites, who formerly ministered in the places, now See also:

• DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

In the innermost the presence of Yahweh abides. We are here moving in a realm of ideas prevailing in ancient Israel respecting holiness, uncleanness and sin, which are ceremonial and not ethical; see especially Robertson Smith's Religion of the Semites, 2nd ed., p. 446 foil. (additional note B.) on holiness, uncleanness and taboo. It is, of course, true that the ethical conception of sin as violation of righteousness and an act of See also:

• REBELLION

1-q, we have details of the purificatory rite which was necessary when human blood was See also:

• SHED

In the Deutero-Isaiah we reach the highest point in the evolution of prophetism. It is true that we have some noble resounding echoes in the lyrical passages lx.-lxii. in the Trito-Isaiah during the post-exilian period, and in such See also:

• PSALM (from the Gr. word * hXAew, to play the harp)

The code of holiness (Lev. xvii.-xxvi.) is the most obvious product of that influence. The ideas of expiation and atonement so prevalent in Ezekiel's scheme, which there find expression in the half-yearly sacrificial celebrations, are expressed in Lev. xvi. in the single annual great fast of atonement. It is impossible to enter here into the numerous details of that impressive ceremonial. Two special features, however, which characterize the celebration should here be noted: (a) The person of the high priest, who is throughout the entire See also:

• DRAMA (literally "action," from Gr. Snail, act or do)

. ' But this term (literally the chief priest) was already in use during the regal period to designate the head priest of an important sanctuary such as Jerusalem (2 Kings xii. ii). doubt that Azazel was an evil demon (like an Arabic Jinn) of the desert. The goat set apart for Azazel was in the concluding part of the ceremonial brought before the high priest, who laid both his hands upon it and confessed over it the sins of the people. It was then carried off by an appointed person to a lonely spot and there set See also:

• FREE

The reverence See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

The same tendency led the pious worshippers to avoid His awful name and to substitute Adonai in their scriptures or to use in the Mishna the term " name " (them) or " heaven." (2) The Maccabean conflict (165 B.c.) tended to accentuate the national sentiment of antagonism to Hellenic influence. The Hasidim or pious devotees, who arose at that time, were the originators of the Pharisaic movement which was conservative as well as national, and laid stress on the strict performance of the law. (b) See also:

• ESCHATOLOGY
• ESCHATOLOGY (Gr. &rXaros, last, and A6yos, science; the " doctrine of last things ")

'91); and it was intended to meet the craving of souls sick with waiting and disappointment. The present outlook was hopeless, but in the enlarged horizon of time as well as space the thoughts of some of the most spiritual minds in Judaism were directed to the transcendent and ultimate. The present world was corrupt and subject to Satan and the powers of darkness. This they called " the present See also:

• AEON

21-22). With this also compare the Babylonian Descent of Ishtar to Hades. The added conception of the resurrection of the righteous does not appear in the world of Jewish thought till the early Greek period in Isa. xxvi. to. R. H. Charles thinks that in this passage the idea of resurrection is of purely Jewish and not of Mazdaan (or Zoroastrian) origin, but it is otherwise with Dan. xii. z; see his Eschatology, Hebrew, Jewish and See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

This especially applies to the " angel of Yahweh " or angel of His Presence [Ex. xxiii. 20, 23 (E). Note in Eli. xxxiii. 14 (J) he is called " my face" or " presence "1 (cf. Isa. Ixiii. q)]. We also know that from earliest times Israel believed in the evil as well as good spirits. Like the Arabs they held that demons became incorporate in serpents, as in Gen. iii. The nephilim were a monstrous brood begotten of the inter-course of the supernatural beings called " sons of God " with the See also:

• WOMEN

55 foil.); also the place Penuel (face of God). angelology and See also:

• DEMONOLOGY (L1alµwv, demon, genius, spirit)

In the Book of See also:

• JUBILEES, BOOK OF

6, 9). Out of these earlier conceptions the idea of the divine wisdom (Heb. hokhmah) gradually arose during the Persian period. The expression " wisdom," as it is employed in the See also:

• LOCUS (Lat. for " place "; in Gr. rinros)

31). This conception of wisdom became still further hypostatized. It becomes redemptive of man. In the Wisdom of Solomon it is the sharer of God's throne (irapehgos), the effulgence of the eternal light and the outflow of His glory (Wisd. vii. 25, viii. 3 foil., ix. 4, 9); " Them that love her the Lord doth love " (See also:

• ECCLESIASTICUS (abbreviated to Ecclus.)

6, 7). Pre-existence is also asserted of Moses and of sacred institutions such as the New Jerusalem, the Temple, See also:

• PARADISE (Gr. lrap6BEwos)

17; Ps. CVi. 37. Baal Zebub of the Philistine Ekron became the See also:

• BEELZEBUB, BEELZEBUL, BAALZEBUB

11, 12). The fetters of nationalism were to be broken, and the Hebrew religion in its essential spiritual elements was to become the heritage of all humanity. 2. On Hebrew religion in particular: specially full and helpful is Kautzsch's article " Religion of Israel " in Hastings's D.B., extra vol.; Marti's recent Religion des A.T. (1906) and his Geschichte der israelitischen Religion, are clear, compact and most serviceable, and the former work presents the subject in fresh and suggestive aspects. Wellhausen's Prolegomena and Jiidische Geschichte should be read both for See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

See also:

• CLARK, FRANCIS EDWARD (1851- )
• CLARK, GEORGE ROGERS (1752—1818)
• CLARK, JOHN BATES (1847— )
• CLARK, JOSIAH LATIMER (1822—1898)
• CLARK, SIR ANDREW
• CLARK, SIR JAMES (1788—1870)
• CLARK, THOMAS (1801—1867)
• CLARK, WILLIAM (1770-1838)
• CLARK, WILLIAM GEORGE (1821—1878)

4. On the special See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

_ (O. C.