See also:

• TEUTONIC
• TEUTONIC (GERMANIC) LANGUAGES

He cites native poems which declared that the Inguaeones, Hermiones and Istaeuones—the three See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

The civilization was, of course, not wholly of native growth. Strong See also:

• FOREIGN

The See also:

• BASTARNAE

What exactly the grouping into Inguaeones, Hermiones and Istaeuones was based upon can only be conjectured, though probably its origin is to be sought rather in See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

In the age of national migrations—from the 4th to the 6th century—the territories of the Teutonic peoples were vastly extended, partly by conquest and partly by arrangement with the Romans. These movements began in the east, where we find the Goths ravaging See also:

• DACIA

It is customary to attribute this great expansion partly to the increasing weakness of the Romans and partly to pressure of population in Germany. Both explanations may contain a certain amount of truth; but there is no doubt that the military strength of the Teutonic nations was far more formidable now than it had been in the time of the early empire. Not only is it clear, both from See also:

• LITERARY

Before the end of the century Bohemia also and Lower Austria, together with the whole of the basins of the See also:

• DRAVE, or DRAVA (Ger. Drau, Hung. Drava, Lat. Dravus)

Incidents illustrative of this See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

The same classes are met with in later times, though occasionally one of them disappears, e.g. the See also:

• NOBILITY

The permanent expansion of the Teutonic peoples outside Europe did not begin till the 16th century. 2. Form of Government.—From the evidence at our disposal it is difficult to determine how far the Teutonic peoples were under kingly government in early times. Tacitus speaks of tribes which had kings and tribes which had not, the latter Kingship, apparently being under a number of- principes. On nearer examination, however, it appears that kingship was intermittent in some tribes, while in others, which had no kings, we find mention of royal families. All such cases were perhaps See also:

• PECULIAR

On the other hand the conditions of the migration period were doubtless favourable to monarchical government, and from this time onwards kingship appears to have been universal, except among the Old Saxons and in Iceland. The concilium or tribal See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

The large amounts fixed for the wergelds of nobles and even of freemen were paid no doubt, as in later times, not only by the slayer himself, but by every member of his kindred in proportion to the nearness or remoteness of his relationship; and in like manner they were distributed among the kindred of the slain. The importance of the kindred, however, was not limited to purposes of mutual. protection. It appears also in the See also:

• TENURE (Fr. tenure, from Lat. tenere, to hold)

Again, Tacitus states that the presents of arms and oxen given by the See also:

• BRIDE (a common Teutonic word, e.g..Goth. bruths, O. Eng. bryd, O. H. Ger. prs2t, Mod. Ger. Bract, Dut. bruid, possibly derived from the root bru-, cook, brew; from the med. latinized form bruta, in the sense of daughter-in-law, is derived the Fr. bru)

That See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

Hence it is not so surprising as might at first sight appear that the remote Aestii, a non-Teutonic people settled about the mouth of the Vistula, are represented by Tacitus as keener agriculturists than any of the other inhabitants of Germany. All ancient writers emphasize the essentially warlike character of the Germani. Yet Tacitus seems to represent their military equipment as being of a somewhat primitive type. Swords, helmets and coats of See also:

• MAIL

The cultivation of vegetables and See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

It is clear both from literary and linguistic evidence that the character was chiefly used for writing on See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

In the national migration period, however, it fell into disuse among most of the continental Teutonic peoples, even before their See also:

• CONVERSION (Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or ,change)

Religion.—The conversion of the Teutonic peoples to Christianity was a gradual process, covering some seven centuries. The first to accept the new religion seem to have been the Goths, beginning about the middle of the 4th century, and the Vandals must have followed their example very quickly. In the course of the 5th century it spread to several other nations, including the Gepidae, Burgundians, Rugii and Langobardi. In all these cases the Arian form of Christianity was the one first adopted. The first conversion to the See also:

• CATHOLIC (Gr. KcaBoXuK6s, general, universal)

Unfortunately Icelandic history is quite unique in this respect. In the literatures of other Teutonic countries we have only occasional references to the religious See also:

• RITES

Their father, Nierar, the god of wealth, who is a somewhat less important figure, corresponds in name to the goddess Nerthus (See also:

• HERTHA, or NERTHUS

Ing, who is connected with Denmark in Anglo-Saxon tradition, was in all probability the eponymous ancestor of the Inguaeones (see above). His name connects him, too, with the god Frey, who was also called Yngvifreyr and Ingunarfreyr, and he must at one time have been closely associated with Nerthus. The relationship of Ing to the Inguaeones is paralleled by that of See also:

• IRMIN, or IRMINUS

Ska5i, the wife of NiorBr, and GerBr, the wife of Frey, were the daughters of the giants Thiazi and Gymir respectively, though SkaBi is always reckoned as a goddess. Loki also was of See also:

• GIANT (O.E. geant, through Fr. giant, O.Fr. gaiant, jaiant, jeant, med. pop. Lat. gagante—cf. Ital. gigante—by assimilation from gigantem, ace. of Lat. gigas, Gr. yiyas)

More important than these from a religious point of view were the elves (O.N. alfar, A.S. ylfe), who certainly received worship, at all events in the North. They are almost always spoken of collectively and generally represented as beneficent. In some respects, e.g. in the fact that they are often said to inhabit barrows, they seem to be connected with the souls of the dead. In other cases, however, they are hardly to be distinguished from See also:

• SPIRITS

In Sweden during the 9th century we have trustworthy See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

These beings are doubtless due in part to poetic See also:

• IMAGINATION

The description given of it recalls in many respects that of a particularly See also:

• HOLY

Of religious ceremonies the most important was See also:

• SACRIFICE (from Lat. sacrificium; sacer, holy, and facere, to make)

In the latter case resort was very frequently had also to sorcery and See also:

• NECROMANCY (Gr. veKpoµavreia, or veIVoµavrEia, from vEKpos or ViKVS, corpse, and µavreia, divination)

Modern Authorities. (a) Archaeology. L. Lindenschmit, See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

See also:

• PAUL
• PAUL (PAULUS)

188o); M. See also:

• BRUNNER, HENRY (184o– )

Kalund, articles " Wirtschaft," " Recht," and " Sitte " in Paul's Grundriss d. germ: Phil., vol. iii. (see above) ; F. Seebohm, Tribal Cusnom in Anglo-Saxon Law (See also:

• LONDON

Wimmer, Runeskriftens Oprindelse (Copenhagen, 1874) ; Die Runenschrift (Berlin, 1887). (d) Religion. J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie (1st ed. 1835, 4th ed. Berlin, 1878); Teutonic Mythology (trans. by J. S. Stallybrass, London, 1883); K. See also:

• MAURER, GEORG LUDWIG VON (1790-1872)

See also:

• JAHN, FRIEDRICH LUDWIG (1778-1852)
• JAHN, JOHANN (1750—1816)
• JAHN, OTTO (1813—1869)

Chantepie de la Saussaye, Geschiednis See also:

• VAN