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PAINE, THOMAS (1737–1809)

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Originally appearing in Volume V20, Page 459 of the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica.
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PAINE, See also:THOMAS (1737–1809) , See also:English author, was See also:born at See also:Thetford, See also:Norfolk, on the 29th of See also:January 1737, the son of a Quaker staymaker. After several years at See also:sea and after trying various occupations on See also:land, Paine took up his See also:father's See also:trade in See also:London, where he supplemented his meagre See also:grammar school See also:education by attending See also:science lectures. He succeeded in 1762 in gaining an See also:appointment in the See also:excise, but was discharged for. neglect of See also:duty in 1765. Three years later, however, he received another appointment, at See also:Lewes in See also:Sussex. He took a vigorous See also:share in the debates of a See also:local Whig See also:club, and in 1772' he wrote a pamphlet embodying the grievances of excisemen and supporting their demands for an increase of pay. In 1774 he was dismissed the service for See also:absence without leave—in See also:order to See also:escape his creditors. A See also:meeting with See also:Benjamin See also:Franklin in London was the turning point in his See also:life. Franklin provided him with letters to his son-in-See also:law, See also:Richard See also:Bache, and many of the leaders in the colonies' resistance to the See also:mother See also:country, then at an acute See also:stage. Paine sailed for See also:America in 1774. Bache introduced him to See also:Robert Aitkin, whose See also:Pennsylvania See also:Magazine he helped found and edited for eighteen months. On the 9th of January 1776 Paine published a pamphlet entitled See also:Common Sense, a telling See also:array of arguments for separation and for the See also:establishment of a See also:republic. His See also:argument was that See also:independence was the only consistent See also:line to pursue, that " it must come to that some See also:time or other "; that it would only be more difficult the more it was delayed, and that independence was the surest road to See also:union.

Written in See also:

simple convincing See also:language, it was read everywhere, and the open See also:movement to independence See also:dates from its publication. See also:Washington said that it " worked a powerful See also:change in the minds of many men." Leaders in the New See also:York Provincial See also:Congress considered the advisability of answering it, but came to the conclusion that it was unanswerable. When See also:war was declared, and See also:fortune at first went against the colonists, Paine, who was then serving with See also:General See also:Greene as volunteer aide-de-See also:camp, wrote the first of a See also:series of influential tracts called The Crisis, of which the opening words, " These are the times that try men's souls," became a See also:battle-cry. Paine's services were recognized by an appointment to be secretary of the See also:commission sent by Congress to treat with the See also:Indians, and a few months later to be secretary of the Congressional See also:committee of See also:foreign affairs. In 1779, however, he committed an indiscretion that brought him into trouble. He published See also:information gained from his See also:official position, and was compelled to resign. He was afterwards clerk of the Pennsylvania legislature, and accompanied See also:John See also:Laurens during his See also:mission to See also:France. His services were eventually recognized by the See also:state of New York by a See also:grant of an See also:estate at New Rochelle, and from Pennsylvania and, at Washington's See also:suggestion, from Congress he received considerable gifts of See also:money. In 1787 he sailed for See also:Europe with the See also:model of an See also:iron See also:bridge he had designed. This was publicly exhibited in See also:Paris and London, and attracted See also:great crowds. In See also:England he determined to " open the eyes of the See also:people to the madness and stupidity of the See also:government." His first efforts in the Prospects on the See also:Rubicon (1787) were directed against See also:Pitt's war policy, and to-wards securing friendly relations with France. When See also:Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France appeared, in 1790, Paine at once wrote his See also:answer, The Rights of See also:Man.

The first See also:

part appeared on the 13th of See also:March 1791, and had an enormous circulation before the government took alarm and endeavoured to suppress it, thereby exciting intense curiosity to see it, even at the See also:risk of heavy penalties. Those who know the See also:book only by hearsay as the See also:work of a furious incendiary will be surprised at the dignity, force and See also:temperance of the See also:style; it was the circumstances that made it inflammatory. Pitt " used to say," according to See also:Lady Hester See also:Stanhope, " that Tom Paine was quite in the right, but then he would add, ` What am I to do? As things are, if I were to encourage Tom Paine's opinions we should have a bloody revolution.' " Paine was indicted for See also:treason in May 1992, but before the trial came off he was elected by the See also:department of See also:Calais to the See also:French See also:convention, and escaped into France, followed by a See also:sentence of See also:outlawry. The first years that he spent in France See also:form a curious See also:episode in his life. He was enthusiastically received, but as he knew little of the language See also:translations of his speeches had to be read for him. He was bold enough to speak and See also:vote for the " detention of See also:Louis during the war and his perpetual banishment after-wards," and he pointed out that the See also:execution of the See also:king would alienate See also:American sympathy. He incurred the suspicion of See also:Robespierre, was thrown into See also:prison, and escaped the See also:guillotine by an See also:accident. Before his See also:arrest he had completed the first part of the See also:Age of See also:Reason, the publication of which made an instant change in his position on both sides of the See also:Atlantic, the indignation in the See also:United States being as strong as in England. The Age of Reason can now be estimated calmly. It was written from the point of view of a Quaker who did not believe in revealed See also:religion, but who held that " all religions are in their nature mild and benign " when not associated with See also:political systems. Inter-mixed with the coarse unceremonious ridicule of what he considered superstition and See also:bad faith are many passages of See also:earnest and even lofty eloquence in favour of a pure morality founded on natural religion.

The work in See also:

short—a second part, written .during his ten months' imprisonment, was published after his See also:release—represents the See also:deism of the 18th See also:century in the hands of a rough, ready, passionate controversialist. At the downfall of Robespierre Paine was restored to his seat in the convention, and served until it adjourned in See also:October 1795. In 1796 he published a See also:long See also:letter to Washington,attacking his military reputation and his presidential policy with inexcusable bitterness. In 18oz Paine sailed for America, but while his services in behalf of the colonies were gratefully remembered, his Age of Reason and his attack on Washington had alienated many of his See also:friends. He died in New York on the 8th of See also:June 1809, and was buried at New Rochelle, but his See also:body was in 1819 removed to England by See also:William See also:Cobbett. See the See also:biography by Moncure D. See also:Conway (1892). PAINESVILLE, a See also:city and the See also:county-seat of See also:Lake county, See also:Ohio, U.S.A., on the See also:Grand See also:River, 3 M. S. of Lake See also:Erie and about 30 M. N.E. of See also:Cleveland. Pop. (1900) 5024, of whom 499 were foreign-born and 179 negroes; (1910) 5501.

It is served by the Lake See also:

Shore & See also:Michigan See also:Southern, the New York, See also:Chicago & St Louis and the See also:Baltimore & Ohio See also:railways, and by electric lines to Cleveland, Fairport and See also:Ashtabula. It is the seat of Lake Erie See also:College (non-sectarian, for See also:women), the successor of See also:Willoughby See also:Seminary (1847), whose buildings at Willoughby, Ohio, were burned in 1856; the college was opened as the Lake Erie See also:Female Seminary in 1859, and became Lake Erie College and Seminary in 1898 and Lake Erie College in 1908. Painesville is situated in a farming and See also:fruit-growing country, and also has some manufactures. Three See also:miles See also:north, on Lake Erie, is the See also:village of Fairport (pop. in 1900, 2073), with a See also:good See also:harbour and See also:coal and ore docks. The See also:municipality owns and operates its waterworks and See also:street-See also:lighting See also:plants. Painesville was founded in 1800-1802 by settlers from See also:Connecticut and New York, conspicuous among whom was General See also:Edward Paine (1746-1841), an officer from Connecticut in the War of Independence; it was incorporated as a village in 1832, and became a city in 1902 under the new Ohio municipal See also:code. PAINTER-WORK, in the See also:building trade. When work is painted one or both of two distinct ends is achieved, namely the preservation and the coloration of the material painted. The compounds used for See also:painting—taking the word as meaning a thin protective or decorative coat—are very numerous, including oil-paint of many kinds, distemper, whitewash, See also:tar; but the word " paint " is usually confined to a mixture of oil and pigment, together with other materials which possess properties necessary to enable the paint to dry hard and opaque. Oil paints are made up of four parts—the See also:base, the vehicle, the solvent and the driers. Pigment may be added to these to obtain a paint of any desired See also:colour. There are several bases for oil paint, those most commonly used for building work being See also:white See also:lead, red lead, See also:zinc white and See also:oxide of iron.

White lead is by far the commonest of bases for paint. When pure it consists of about 75% carbonate of lead and about 25% of lead See also:

hydrate. It is mixed with 6 or 7% by See also:weight of pure See also:linseed oil, and in this form is supplied to the painter. Sulphate of baryta is the See also:chief adulterant used in the manufacture of white lead. White lead has greater covering properties and is more durable than the other bases. It should therefore always be used in See also:external painting. Paints having white lead for a base darken with age, and become discoloured when exposed to the fumes of sulphuretted See also:hydrogen, which exists to a greater or less extent in the See also:air of all large towns. Zinc white, an oxide of zinc, is of a purer white colour than white lead. It is lighter, and does not possess the same durability or covering See also:power. It is, however, useful in See also:internal decoration, as it retains its colour well, even when subjected to the See also:action of gases. Red lead is a lead oxide. It is used chiefly in the priming coat and as a base for some red paints.

Like white lead, it is injured if exposed tc acids or impure air, which cause discoloration and'decay. Oxide of iron is used chiefly as a base in paints used for covering iron-work, the theory being that no destructive galvanic action can be set up, as might be the See also:

case with lead paint when used on iron. A variety of red See also:pigments are made from oxide of iron, varying in See also:hue from a See also:pale to a deep brownish-red. They are quite permanent, and may be used under any conditions. The vehicle is a liquid in which the particles of the base are held in suspension, enabling a thin coat of paint to be formed, See also:uniform in colour and consistency, and which on drying forms a See also:kind of skin over the See also:surface to which it is applied. For oil paint the vehicles used are See also:oils; for distemper See also:water is employed. The oils used as vehicles are chiefly linseed oil, raw and boiled, and See also:poppy-See also:seed oil. See also:Nut oils are occasionally used for inferior work because they are much cheaper. Linseed oil, the one most commonly used, is obtained from the seeds of the See also:flax by warming it and squeezing out the oil under See also:hydraulic pressure. The resultant, which is of a transparent See also:amber colour, is known as " raw " oil. It is used principally in interiors for See also:light, See also:bright See also:colours, drying somewhat slowly and giving a See also:firm elastic coat. The oil improves by keeping, and is sometimes " refined " with acids or alkalies.

" Boiled " oil is the raw oil heated with driers, such as litharge or red lead, to a temperature from 350° to 500° F., at which it is maintained for three or four See also:

hours. It is thick and much darker in colour than the raw oil, drying much more quickly, with a coat hard and glossy but less elastic than that produced by raw oil. Poppy-seed oil is expressed from the seeds of the poppy plant. It does not possess the tenacity and See also:quick-drying See also:powers of boiled linseed oil, but being of a very light colour it is used for delicate colours. See also:Turpentine is used as a solvent, diluent, or " thinner," to bring the paint to a proper consistency so as to allow it to be spread in a thin even coat. When a See also:flat dull surface is desired, turpentine alone is used with the base and the oil is omitted. The best turpentine comes from the See also:pine forests of America. French turpentine is next in quality. See also:Russian turpentine is the cheapest, and has usually a strong and unpleasant odour that renders it objectionable to work with. In consequence of the high See also:price of turpentine of good quality, and the increasing difficulty of obtaining it, substitutes are coming into general use. " Driers " are substances usually added to paint to hasten the See also:process of oxidation, i.e. the drying, of the oil. Some pigments possess this quality, as red lead and white lead.

The most notable driers are litharge, See also:

sugar of lead, patent driers, sulphate of zinc and See also:manganese dioxide. Liquid driers, such as terebene, are also in use. Litharge, an oxide of lead, is in most general use. Sugar of lead is used, ground in oil, for light tints. Sulphate of zinc and manganese driers are used for paints in which zinc white is the base, which would be injured by lead driers. " Pigments " are preparations of metallic, earthy or See also:animal origin mixed into paint to give it colour. For oil paint they are usually ground in oil; for distemper they are sold as a finely ground See also:powder. The See also:ordinary pigments are white lead, zinc white, umbers, siennas, See also:ochres, chromes, Venetian red, See also:Indian red, See also:lamp See also:black, See also:bone black, See also:vegetable black, See also:ultramarine, Prussian See also:blue, See also:vermilion, red lead, oxide of iron, lakes and Vandyke See also:brown. The See also:term " See also:enamel paint " was first given to a See also:compound of zinc white, petrol and See also:resin, which possessed on drying a hard glossy surface. The name is now applied to any coloured paint of this nature. Quick-drying enamels are spirit varnishes ground with the desired pigment. For slow-drying enamels oil varnishes form the vehicle.

Woodwork is often treated with a thin transparent-coloured liquid which changes the colour of the work without hiding the See also:

grain of the See also:wood, and if the latter is good a very See also:fine result is obtained. Sometimes the stain is produced by the See also:combination of two or more chemicals applied separately, or soluble pigments may be mixed with a transparent vehicle and applied in the usual way. The vehicles for the pigments vary considerably, and include water, methylated spirit, See also:size, turpentine and clear raw linseed oil. See also:Varnish is made by dissolving certain gums in linseed oil, turpentine, spirit or water. They give a transparent protective coat to painted and stained surfaces or to See also:wall-See also:paper or See also:plain woodwork. Varnishes usually dry with a very smooth, hard and shiny surface, but " flat " or " dead " surfaces which are without See also:gloss may be obtained with See also:special varnish. The gums used for hard-wearing or See also:carriage varnishes, such as those to be exposed to the See also:weather and frequently cleaned and polished, are amber, See also:copal and See also:gum See also:anime. Amber is a yellow transparent or clouded gum found on the coasts of the'Baltic, and particularly in See also:Prussia. It makes a hard, durable and slow-drying varnish which does not darken with age. Copal gum is brought from the See also:West See also:India Islands and also from the See also:East Indies. It makes the most durable varnish, and being tough and hard is generally used for external work. Gum anime, is a variety of copal found in the sandy See also:soil of the East Indies.

It is hard, durable and quick-drying, but unless the varnish is carefully made it is liable to crack. Varnishes for inside work, or See also:

cabinet varnishes, are made with a variety of resins dissolved in linseed oil and turpentine. The resultant gives a hard, lustrous surface, somewhat less durable than that of carriage varnishes. Turpentine varnishes are made from soft gums, such as See also:dammar, common resin and See also:mastic; they are light in colour, cheap and not very durable. Lacquers or spirit varnishes are made from very soft gums, such as shellac and See also:sandarach, dissolved in methylated spirit. They are used for internal work, drying quickly, and becoming hard and very brilliant. Surfaces formed with such varnishes are liable to chip easily and See also:scale off. Oil paint is very much improved by the addition of some varnish; it causes it to dry harder and more quickly and with a fine lustrous surface. The driers used for varnish are generally acetate of lead or litharge. An excess of driers makes the varnish less durable and causes cracking. There are many kinds of French polishes, mixed in different ways, but most are composed of shellac and sandarach dissolved in spirit. It is applied to the perfectly smooth surface of hard See also:woods with a See also:pad of See also:flannel or See also:wadding wrapped in See also:linen, and well rubbed in with a circular See also:motion.

A dull See also:

polish is procured by rubbing beeswax into the wood. It must be thoroughly rubbed in, a little turpentine being added as a lubricant when the See also:rubber See also:works stiffly. If paint were applied over the See also:bare knots of new wood it would be destroyed, or at least discoloured, by the exudation of resin from the knots. For the purpose of obviating this the knots are covered with two coats of a preparation called " knotting," made by dissolving shellac in methylated spirit. See also:Putty is required for stopping See also:nail-holes and small crevices and irregularities in woodwork. It is made of powdered See also:whiting and linseed oil mixed together and kneaded into a stiff See also:paste. For light work " hard stopping," made of white lead and whiting, should be employed. The tools and appliances of the painter are mixing pots, paint kettles to hold the colour for the painter at work, strainer, See also:palette See also:knife, scraping knife, hacking, stopping and See also:chisel knives, the See also:hammer, sponge, See also:pumice, See also:blow-lamp for burning off, and a variety of brushes, such as the duster, the ground See also:brush, the See also:tool, the distemper brush, the See also:fitch and See also:camel-See also:hair See also:pencil for picking out small parts and lines, the See also:sable and flogger for See also:gilding, the stippler; for grained work several See also:steel graining combs with coarse and fine See also:teeth, graining brush of hogs' hair, pencil over-grainer, and other special shaped brushes used to obtain the See also:peculiar characteristics of different woods. It is absolutely necessary for good work to use brushes of a fine quality, and although expensive at first cost, they are undoubtedly cheapest in See also:wear. Workmanship.—New woodwork requires to be knotted, primed, stopped, and in addition painted with three or four coats of oil colour. The priming coat is a thin coat of white lead, red lead and driers mixed with linseed oil and turpentine. Work should always be primed before the stopping is done.

The second or " lead " coat is composed mainly of turpentine, linseed oil and white lead. The third coat is the ground for the See also:

finishing colour, and is made of white lead and linseed oil and turpentine, with enough pigment to bring it to a tint approaching the finishing colour. The remaining coat or coats is of similar See also:composition. A " flatting " coat is made of white lead and turpentine with the desired pigment. One See also:pound of colour will See also:cover 4 sq. yds. in the first coat and 6 sq. yds. in the additional coat. Graining.—Graining is understood among painters to be the imitating of the several different See also:species of ornamental woods, as satinwood, See also:rosewood, See also:mahogany, See also:oak and others. After the necessary coats of paint have been put on to the wood a ground is then laid of the required tint and See also:left to dry. The painter then prepares small quantities of the same colour with a little brown, and boiled oil and turpentine, and, having mixed this, spreads it over some small part of his work. The flat hogs' hair brushes being dipped in the liquid and See also:drawn down the newly-laid colour, the shades and grainings are produced. To obtain the mottled See also:appearance the camels' hair pencils are applied, and when completed the work is left to dry, and after-wards covered by a coat or two of good copal varnish. See also:Imitation See also:wainscot requires the use of combs of various degrees of fineness to obtain the grain (whence the process is called combing by some persons), and the See also:flower is got by wiping off the colour with a piece of rag. When dry it is over-grained to obtain a more See also:complete See also:representation of the natural wood, and then varnished.

If the work be done in water-colour and not in oil, See also:

beer grounds to See also:act as a drier are mixed with the colour; this sets it ready for varnishing. A " patent graining See also:machine," a sort of See also:roller with a See also:pattern upon it, is often used. Marbling.—Marbling is the imitation of real See also:marbles and granites, some of which are represented by splashing on the carefully prepared ground, which should have been painted and often rubbed and polished to obtain an even surface; others have to be painted in colours, and then well varnished. Painting on See also:Plaster Work.—Plastering should never be painted until it is thoroughly dry. See also:Portland See also:cement is best left for a See also:year or two before being painted. Plaster work not previously painted will require four or five coats, Portland cement five or six. If plastered work is required to be painted immediately, it should be executed in See also:Keene's or Parian cement (see PLASTER WORK). A great See also:deal more paint is of course absorbed by plaster than by wood, just as wood absorbs more than iron. Painting on Iron.—Iron and steel work should receive a coat of oxide paint at the manufacturer's works; additional coats are added after erection. All See also:rust should be previously removed by means of See also:wire brushes and See also:paraffin or turpentine. The best paints for external iron work are composed of oxide of iron and red lead, mixed with linseed oil. The following is an See also:extract from the building by-See also:laws of the municipality of See also:Johannesburg: " All structural See also:metal work shall be thoroughly cleaned from scale and rust before painting.

Faying surfaces in riveted work shall be painted before putting them together. All surfaces of steel or iron work inaccessible after erection shall be protected as far as possible either by coating them with ` See also:

Smith's ' or other approved bituminous composition, or by filling the spaces which they enclose with See also:lime See also:concrete." Repainting Old Work. Before beginning to repaint work of any description it must be thoroughly cleaned. If the surface is in good See also:condition it will be sufficient to scrub down with good See also:soap and water and afterwards sponge and wipe dry. If the work has become rough it will often be necessary to use pumice See also:stone to facilitate the operation of cleaning. The pumice should be cut or rubbed to a flat surface and vigorously applied with plenty of clean water. It is essential that the work should be quite dry before any paint is applied. If the old surface is much cracked and blistered no amount of rubbing with pumice will enable the workman to obtain a good ground for the new coats, and it will be necessary to remove the old paint entirely. For this purpose painters most frequently use a paint burner or See also:torch which See also:burns paraffin oil under air pressure. This causes the paint to soften and See also:blister under the See also:heat, in which state it is readily scraped off by a See also:blunt knife. The old-fashioned See also:grate filled with See also:charcoal held See also:close to the surface by means of a long handle is now not often used. There has recently been a considerable increase in the use of chemical paint removers in paste or liquid form; as a See also:rule these contain some See also:alkali, such as lime or See also:caustic soda.

The preparation is brushed on to the paint required to be removed, and in the course of from ten minutes to See also:

half an See also:hour the paint becomes so soft that it can readily be scraped off. Blistering and Cracking.—The blistering of painted surfaces may be caused in several ways. If on iron, it may be the result of a particle of rust which, not having been removed in the process of cleaning, has increased in size and loosened the paint. If on plaster, a particle of unslaked lime may have " blown," with a similar result. On wood, blistering is usually caused by painting upon a wet surface or upon unseasoned wood. Blisters may also be caused by the use of too much oil in paint exposed to heat, or the application of one coat upon another before the latter is properly dry. To prevent blistering a method that has been tried with good results is to apply two coats of water paint (washable distemper) and follow by two coats of oil colour or varnish. Cracking is caused by the use of too much oil in the under coats and too little in the See also:top coats. Distemper.—New plaster-work must be quite dry before distemper is applied. The work should be stopped (that is, any irregularities filled up with plaster of Paris mixed with whiting and water to a paste) and then rubbed perfectly smooth with See also:glass paper. Clairecole, a See also:solution of thin size and whiting, is then applied to render the plaster non-absorbent, and this is followed by distemper of the desired colour. Distemper is made by soaking whiting in clean water to a creamy consistency.

To this is added size which has been previously warmed, and the pigment required to colour the mixture; the whole is then well stirred and strained to remove any lumps. Many patent See also:

wash-able distempers under See also:fancy names are now on the See also:market in the form of paste or powder, which simply require to be mixed with water to be ready for use. If applied to woodwork distemper is See also:apt to flake off. The " one-See also:knot " brush for cornices and other See also:mouldings and the " two-knot " and " See also:brass-See also:bound " brushes for flat surfaces are usually employed for distempering and whitewashing. A granular surface is produced by stippling or dabbing the surface with a stiff bristled brush specially made for this purpose. Gilding, &c.—Very See also:rich effects may be produced both in external and internal decorations by the judicious use of overlays of See also:gold or See also:silver. In their application, however, it must always be See also:borne in mind that they are metals, not paints, and they should only be used in positions such as would be appropriate for the actual metals. " Dutch metal " and other imitations cost about one-third of the price of genuine gilding, and require to be protected from oxidization by a coat of See also:lacquer. Gold See also:leaf is affixed with gold size or other adhesive preparations. The best and most durable work is oil gilding, which involves less labour, and results in a richer appearance than other methods. The work is usually primed first of all with a solution of boiled linseed oil and white lead, and then covered with a fine glutinous composition called gold size, on which, when it is nearly dry, the gold leaf is laid in narrow strips with a fine brush, and pressed down with a pad of See also:cotton-See also:wool held in the fingers. As the slips must be made to overlap each other slightly to ensure the complete covering of the whole surface, the loose edges will remain unattached, to be afterwards struck off with a large sable or camel-hair brush.

The See also:

joints, if the work be skilfully executed, will be invisible. For burnished gilding the work must be covered with various coats of See also:gluten, plaster and See also:bole, which last is mixed with gold size to secure the See also:adhesion of the leaf.

End of Article: PAINE, THOMAS (1737–1809)

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