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CRIVELLI, CARLO
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See also:CRIVELLI, CARLO , Venetian painter, was See also:born in the earlier See also:part of the 15th See also:century. The only See also:dates that can with certainty be given are 1468 and 1493; these are respectively the earliest and the latest years signed on his pictures—the former on an See also:altar-piece in the See also: It is surmised that Carlo was of the same family as the painters Donato Crivelli (who was working in 1459, and was also a See also:scholar of Jacobello) and See also:Vittorio Crivelli. Pietro See also:Alamanni was his See also:pupil. See, along with See also:Crowe and Cavalcaselle, Berenson, Venetian Painters of the See also:Renaissance (1899) ; See also:Morelli, See also:Italian Painters (1892-1893) ; Rushforth, Carlo Crivelli (1900). (W. M. R.) CROATIA-SLAVONIA (Serbo-Croatian Hrvatska i Slavonija; Hung. Horvdt-Szlavonorszdg; Ger. Kroatien and Slawonien), a See also:kingdom of the Hungarian See also:monarchy; bounded on the N. by See also:Carniola, See also:Styria and See also:Hungary proper; E. by Hungary and See also:Servia; S. by Servia, Bosnia and See also:Dalmatia; and W. by the Adriatic See also:Sea, See also:Istria and Carniola. Until 1881 Croatia, in the N.W. of this region, was divided from Slavonia, in the N.E., by a See also:section of the See also:Austrian Military Frontier. This section is now the See also:county of Bjelovar, and forms part of the See also:united kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia. The See also:river Kulpa, which bisects the county of See also:Agram, is usually regarded as the See also:north-eastern limit of the See also:Balkan See also:Peninsula; and thus the greater part of Croatia, lying See also:south of this river, falls within the See also:peninsular boundary, while the See also:remainder, with all Slavonia, belongs to the See also:continental mainland. According to the See also:official survey of 1900, the See also:total See also:area of the See also:country is 16,423 sq. m. The Croatian littoral extends for about 90 M. from See also:Fiume to the Dalmatian frontier. A narrow strait, the See also:Canale della Morlacca (or della Montagna), separates it from See also:Veglia, Arbe, Pago and other Istrian or Dalmatian islands. The See also:city and territories of Fiume, the See also:sole important See also:harbour on this See also:coast, are included in Hungary proper, and controlled by the See also:Budapest See also:government. Westward from
See also:Warasdin, and along the See also:borders of Styria, Carniola, Istria, Dalmatia and north-western Bosnia, the frontier is generally mountainous and follows an irregular course. The central and eastern region, situated between the See also:Drave and See also:Danube on the north, and the See also:Save on the south, forms one See also:long See also:wedge, with its point at See also:Semlin.
See also:Physical Features.—Croatia-Slavonia is naturally divided into two See also:great sections, the See also:highlands of the See also:west and the See also:low-lands of the See also:east.
The See also:plateau of the Istrian See also:Karst is prolonged in several of the See also:bare and desolate See also:mountain chains between the Save and the Adriatic, notably the Great and Little Kapella (or Kapela), which See also:link together the Karst and the Dinaric See also:Alps, culminating in Biela Lazica (5029 ft.); the Pljesevica or Plisevica Planina (5410 ft.), overlooking the valley of the river Una ; and the Velebit Planina, which follows the westward See also:curve of the coast, and rises above the sea in an abrupt See also:wall, unbroken by any considerable See also:bay or inlet. As it skirts the Dalmatian border, this range attains its greatest See also:altitude in the adjacent peaks of Sveto Brdo (5751 ft.), and Vakanski Vrh (5768 ft.). Large tracts of the Croatian highlands are well-nigh waterless, and it is only in the more sheltered hollc ws that sufficient See also:soil collects for large trees to flourish. In See also:northern Croatia and Slavonia the mountains are far more fertile, being often densely wooded with oaks, beeches and pines. They comprise the Uskoken Gebirge, or See also:Uskoks Mountains, named after the piratical Uskoks (q.v.) of See also:Zengg, who were deported hither after the fall of their stronghold in 1617; the Warasdin Mountains, with the See also:peak of Ivanscica (3478 ft.); the Agram Mountains, culminating in Sljeme or Slema (3396 ft.), and including the beautiful stretches of Alpine pasture known as the Zagorje, or " See also:land beyond the hills "; the Bilo Gebirge, or See also: In the east Slavonian county of Syrmia 1 the Fruska Gora or Vrdnik Mountains rise to a height of 1768 ft. along the See also:southern See also:bank of the Danube, their picturesque vineyards and See also:pine or See also:oak See also:woods contrasting strongly with the plains that surround them. The lowlands, in the valleys of the Drave, Danube, Save and Kulpa, belong partly to the great Hungarian Plains, or Alfold. Besides the sterile and monotonous See also:steppes, valuable only as pasture, and so sparsely populated that it is possible to travel for many See also:hours without encountering any sign of human See also:life except a See also:primitive artesian well or a shepherd's hut, there are wide expanses of fen-country, regularly flooded in See also:spring and autumn. The marshes which See also:line the Save below See also:Sissek are often impassable except at See also:Brod and See also:Mitrovica, and the river is constantly scooping out fresh channels in the soft soil, only to abandon each in turn. The total area liable to yearly inundation exceeds 200 sq. m. But along the Drave and Danube the plains are sometimes strikingly fertile, and yield an abundance of See also:grain, See also:fruit and See also:wine. The See also:main See also:rivers of Croatia-Slavonia, the Danube, Drave and Save, are fully described under See also:separate headings. After reaching Croatian territory 13 M. N.W. of Warasdin, the Drave flows along the northern frontier for 155 m., receiving the Bednja and Karasnica on the right, and falling, near See also:Esseg, into the Danube, which serves as the Hungaro-Slavonian boundary for an additional 116 m. The Save enters the country 16 m. W. of Agram, and, after winding for io6 m. S.E. to Jasenovac, constitutes the southern frontier for 253 m., and meets the Danube at See also:Belgrade. It is joined by the Sotla, Krapina, Lonja, Ilova, Pakra and Oljana, which drain the central See also:water-See also:shed; but its only large tributaries are the Una, a Bosnian stream, which springs in the Dinaric Alps, and skirts the Croatian border for 40 M. before entering the Save at Jasenovac; and 1 Also written Sirmia and Sirmium; Serbo-Croatian Sriem; Hungarian Szerim.the Kulpa, which follows a tortuous course of 6o m. from its headwaters north of Fiume, to its confluence with the Save at Sissek. The Mreznica, Dobra, Glina and Korana are right-See also:hand tributaries of the Kulpa. In the Croatian Karst the seven streams of the Lika unite and plunge into a rocky chasm near Gospic, and the few small See also:brooks of this region usually vanish underground in a similar manner. Near Fiume, the Recina, Rjeka or Fiumara falls into the Adriatic after a brief course. There is no large See also:lake in Croatia-Slavonia, but the upland pools and waterfalls of Plitvica, near Ogulin, are celebrated for their beauty. After a thaw or heavy See also:rain, the subterranean rivers See also:flood the mountain hollows of the Karst; and a lake thus formed by the river Gajka, near Otocac, has occasionally filled its See also:basin to a See also:depth of 16o ft. Minerals.—The See also:mineral resources of the kingdom, though capable of further development, are not See also:rich. They are chiefly confined to the mountains, where See also:iron, See also:coal, See also:copper, See also:lead, See also:zinc, See also:silver and See also:sulphur are See also:mined in small quantities. Warm mineral springs rise at Krapina, at Toplice near WI'arasdin, at Stubica near Agram, and elsewhere. See also:Climate.—The climate of Croatia-Slavonia varies greatly in different regions. In the Karst it is liable to sudden and violent changes, and especially to the See also:bore, a fierce N.N.E. See also:wind, which renders See also:navigation perilous among the islands off the coast, and, in See also:winter, blocks the roads and railway-cuttings with deep snowdrifts. The sheltered bays near Fiume enjoy an equable climate; but in all other districts the temperature in See also:mid-winter falls regularly below zero, and the summer heats are excessive. Earthquakes are See also:common among the mountains, and the eastern lowlands are exposed to the great winds and sandstorms which sweep, down the Alfold. At Agram, during the years 1896-1900, the mean See also:annual temperature was 52° F., with 34.6 in. of rain and See also:snow; at Fiume, the figures for the same See also:period were 57° and 71 in. See also:Agriculture.—The agricultural inquiry of 1895 showed that 94.5 % of the country consisted of arable land, gardens, vineyards, meadows, pastures and forests; but much of this area must be set down as mountainous and swampy pasture of poor quality. The richest land occurs in the Zagorje and its neighbourhood, in the hills near Warasdin and in the northern half of Syrmia. The Karst and the See also:fens are of least agricultural value. See also:Indian See also:corn heads the See also:list of cereals, but See also:wheat, oats, See also:rye and See also:barley are also cultivated, besides See also:hemp, See also:flax, See also:tobacco and large quantities of potatoes. The extensive See also:vine-yards were much injured by See also:phylloxera towards the See also:close of the 19th century. The Slavonian See also:plum orchards furnish dried prunes, besides a See also:kind of See also:brandy largely exported under the name of sliwowitz or shlivovitsa. Near Fiume the See also:orange, See also:lemon, See also:pomegranate, fig and See also:olive See also:bear well; mulberries are planted on many estates for silkworms; and the heather-clad uplands of the central region favour the keeping of bees. Large herds of See also:swine fatten in the oak and See also:beech forests; and See also:dairy-farming is a thriving See also:industry in the highlands between Agram and Warasdin, where, during the last years of the 19th century, systematic attempts were made to replace the mountain pastures by See also:clover and sown grass. The proportion of See also:sheep to other live-stock is See also:lower than in most of the South See also:Slavonic lands, and the scarcity of goats is also noteworthy. Horsebreeding is a favourite pursuit in Slavonia; and between 1900 and 1902 many thousands of remounts were shipped to the See also:British See also:army in South See also:Africa. The See also:local See also:administration endeavours to better the quality of live-stock by importing purer breeds, distributing prizes, and other See also:measures; but the native farmers are slow to accept improvements. Forests.—Forests, principally of oak, pine and beech, covered 3,734,00o acres in 1895, about one-fifth being See also:state See also:property. Especially valuable are the Croatian oak-forests, near Agram and Sissek. See also:Timber is exported from Fiume and down the Danube. See also:Industries.—Apart from the distilleries and breweries scattered throughout the country, the See also:rude See also:flour-See also:mills which See also:lie moored in the rivers, and a few See also:glass-See also:works, saw-mills, See also:silk-mills and tobacco factories, the chief See also:industrial establishments of Croatia-Slavonia are at Agram, Fiume, Semlin, See also:Buccari and See also:Porto Re. Only 8.3 of the See also:population was, in 1900, engaged in industries other than farming, which occupied 85.2 %. The exports mainly consist of foodstuffs, especially grain, of live-stock, especially pigs and horses, and of timber. The imports include textiles, iron, coal, wine and colonial products; with machinery and other finished articles. Goods in transit to and from Hungary figure largely in the official returns for Fiume2 and Semlin, which are the centres of the See also:foreign See also:trade. In 1900 Croatia-Slavonia possessed 253 banking establishments. Communications.—The See also:commerce of the country is furthered by upwards of 2000 M. of See also:carriage-roads, the most remarkable of these 2 It is impossible to exclude Fiume from any survey of Croatian trade, although Fiume belongs politically to Hungary proper, and is the main outlet for Hungarian See also:emigration and maritime commerce. being the Maria Louisa, which connects See also:Karlstadt with Fiume, and the Josephina, which passes inland from Zengg. Many excellent highways were built for strategic purposes before the abolition of the Military Frontier in 1881. The See also:railways, which are all owned and managed by the Hungarian state, intersect most parts of the country except the mountains south of Ogulin, where there is, nevertheless, a considerable See also:traffic over the passes into Dalmatia and Bosnia. Agram is the principal railway centre, from which lines radiate S. W. to Fiume, W. into See also:Austria, N.N.E. to Warasdin and into Hungary, and S.E. into Bosnia by way of Kostajnica. The main line eastward from Agram passes through Brod, where it meets the Bosnian See also:system, and on to Belgrade; throwing out two See also:branch lines to Brcka and Samac in Bosnia, and several branches on the north, which See also:traverse the central watershed, and See also:cross the Hungarian frontier at Many, Bares, Esseg, Erdar and See also:Peterwardein. Above Agram the Save is used chiefly for floating rafts of timber; east of Sissek it is navigable by small steamboats, but, despite its great See also:volume, the multitude of its perpetually shifting sandbanks interferes greatly with traffic. Steamers also ply on the Una, the Drave below Bares, and the Danube. The marshes of Syrmia are partially drained by the so-called " See also:Canal of See also:Probus," the one large artificial waterway in the country, said to have been cut by the See also:Romans in the 3rd century. Chief Towns.—The principal towns are Agram, the See also:capital, with 61,002 inhabitants in 1900; Esseg, the capital of Slavonia (24,930) ; Semlin (15,079) ; Mitrovica (11,518) ; Warasdin (12,930) ; Karlstadt (7396) ; Brod (7310) ; Sissek (7047) ; See also:Djakovo (6824) ; See also:Karlowitz (5643) ; Peterwardein (5019) ; Zengg (3182) ; and Buccari (187o). These are described in separate articles. The centre of the See also:coasting trade is Novi, and other small seaports are San Giorgio (Sveto Juraj), Porto Re (Kraljevica) and Carlopago. Agram, Gospic (10,799), Ogulin (8699), Warasdin and Bjelovar (6o56) are respectively the capitals of the five counties which belong to Croatia proper,—Agram (Hung. Zdgrdb), Modru:4-Fiume, Lika-Krbava, Warasdin (Varasd) and Bjelovar (Belovdr-Koros); while the capitals of the three Slavonian counties, Virovitica (Verocze), Polega (Pozsega) and Syrmia (Szerem), are Esseg, Pozega (5000) and Semlin. Population and National Characteristics.—The population See also:rose from 1,892,499 in 1881 to 2,416,304 in 1900, an increase of little less than one-third, resulting from a uniformly low See also:death rate, with a high See also:marriage and See also:birth rate, and characterized by that preponderance of male over See also:female See also:children which is common to all the South Slavonic lands. More than 75% of the inhabitants are Croats, the bulk of the remainder being Serbs, who predominate in eastern Slavonia. Outside Croatia-Slavonia, the Croats occupy the greater part of Dalmatia and northern Bosnia. There are large Croatian settlements in the south of Hungary, and smaller colonies in Austria. The See also:numbers of the whole nation may be estimated at 3,500,000 or 4,000,000. The distinction between Croats and Serbs is religious, and, to a less extent, linguistic. Croats and Serbs together constitute a single branch of the Slavonic See also:race, frequently called the Serbo-Croatian branch. The See also:literary See also:language of the two nations is identical, but the Croats use the Latin See also:alphabet,' while the Serbs prefer a modified form of the See also:Cyrillic. The two nations have also been politically separated since the 7th century, if not for a longer period; but this See also:division has produced little difference of See also:character or physical type. Even the See also:costume of the Croatian peasantry, to whom brilliant See also:colours and intricate embroideries are always dear, proclaims their racial identity with the Serbs; their songs, dances and musical See also:instruments, the chief part of their customs and, folk-See also:lore, their whole manner of life, so little changed by its closer contact with Western See also:civilization, may be studied in Servia (q.v.) itself. In both countries rural society was based on the old-fashioned See also:household community, or zadruga, which still survives in the territories that formed the Military Frontier, though everywhere tending to disappear and be replaced by individual ownership. The Croatian peasantry are least. prosperous in the See also:riverside districts, where See also:marsh-fevers prevail, and especially beside the Save. Even in many of the towns the houses are See also:mere cabins of See also:wood and See also:thatch. As in Servia, there is practically no See also:middle class between the peasants and the educated minority; and the commercial See also:element consists to a great extent of foreigners, especially Germans, Hungarians, Italians and See also:Jews. Numerically this 1 It is important to See also:notice the value of the following letters and signs, which recur frequently :—c = is ; 1= ch (hard) ; = ch (soft) ; j = y, or j in See also:German ; I = sh ; = zh, or j in See also:French.See also:alien population is insignificant. The Italians are chiefly confined to the coast; the Germans congregate at Semlin and Warasdin; the See also:Slovenes are settled along the north-western frontier, where they have introduced their language, and so greatly modified the local See also:dialect; the See also:gipsies wander from city to city, as See also:horse-dealers, See also:metal workers or musicians; there are numerous Moravian and Bohemian settlements; and near Mitrovica there is a See also:colony of Albanians. It is impossible to give accurate See also:statistics of the alien population; for, in the compilation of the official figures, language is taken as a test of See also:nationality, an utterly untrustworthy method in a country where every educated See also:person speaks two or three See also:languages. Croatian nationalists also maintain that official figures are systematically altered in the Hungarian See also:interest. Constitution and Government.—By the fundamental See also:law of the 21st of See also:December 1867 Austria-Hungary was divided, for purposes of See also:internal government, into Cisleithania, or the Austrian See also:empire, and Transleithania, or the kingdoms of Hungary and Croatia-Slavonia. In theory the See also:viceroy, or See also:ban of Croatia-Slavonia is nominated by the See also:crown, and enjoys almost unlimited authority over local affairs; in practice the consent of the crown is purely formal, and the ban is appointed by the Hungarian premier, who can dismiss him at any moment. The provincial government is subject to the ban, and comprises three ministries —the interior, See also:justice, and See also:religion and See also:education,—for whose working the ban is responsible to the Hungarian premier, and to the national See also:assembly of Croatia-Slavonia (Narodna Skupftina). This See also:body consists of a single chamber, composed partly of elected deputies, partly of privileged members, whose numbers cannot exceed half those of the deputies. There are 69 constituencies, besides the 21 royal See also:free cities which also return deputies. See also:Electors must belong to certain professions or pay a small tax. The privileged members are the heads of the See also:nobility, with the highest ecclesiastics and officials. As a See also:rule, they represent the "Magyarist " section of society, which sympathizes with Hungarian policy. The chamber deals with religion, education, justice and certain strictly provincial affairs, but even within this limited See also:sphere all its important enactments must be countersigned by the See also:minister for Croatia-Slavonia, a member, without See also:portfolio, of the Hungarian See also:cabinet. At the polls, all votes are given orally, a system which facilitates corruption; the officials who See also:control the elections depend for their livelihood on the ban, usually a Magyarist; and thus, even apart from the privileged members, a See also:majority favourable to Hungary can usually be secured. The constitutional relations between Hungary and Croatia-Slavonia are regulated by the agreement, or nagoda, of 1868. This See also:instrument determines the functions of the ban; the control of common interests, such as railways, posts, telegraphs, telephones, commerce, industry, agriculture or forests; and the choice of delegates by the chamber, to sit in the Hungarian See also:parliament. See also below, under See also:History. For administrative purposes Croatia-Slavonia is divided into 8 rural counties, already enumerated; besides the 4 See also:urban counties, or municipalities of Agram, Semlin, Warasdin and Esseg. Local These are subdivided into rural and urban communes, adminiseach with its representative See also:council. The affairs of each tration. rural county are managed by an assembly chosen for 6 years, which comprises not only elected members, but delegates from all the cities except Agram and Esseg, with certain high ecclesiastics and officials. The highest judicial authority is the supreme See also:court or Septemviral Table, which sits at Agram, and ranks above the royal justice. courts of See also:appeal, the county courts of first instance, and the See also:district courts or magistracies. Fully four-fifths of the population belong to the See also:Roman See also:Catholic Church, which has an See also:archbishop at Agram and bishops at Zengg and Djakovo. There are about 12,000 See also:Greek Catholics, Religion. with a See also:bishop at Kreuz (Krizevac), The Serb congrega- tions, who had previously been classed as Orthodox Greek, were officially recognized as members of the Orthodox Church of Servia after 1883. Their episcopal See also:sees of Karlowitz and Pakrac depend upon the metropolitanate of Belgrade; but from 183o to 1838 Karlowitz was itself the headquarters of the Servian Church. During the 19th century strenuous efforts to better the state of education were made by Bishop See also:Strossmayer (1815–1905) and other reformers; but, although some success was achieved, only one-third of the population could read and write in 1900. Foremost among the educational institutions is the South Slavonic See also:Academy Bduca- of Sciences and Arts (Jugoslavenska Akademija Znanosti 4D. i Umjetnosti), founded by Strossmayer and others in 1867, as an improvement on a learned society which had existed since 1836. The academy is the headquarters of the nationalist propaganda. Its numerous publications, though sometimes biased by See also:political See also:passion, throw much light on Serbo-Croatian history, law, See also:philology and kindred topics. Agram University, founded in 1874, possesses three faculties—theology, See also:philosophy and law; but, unlike other Hungarian See also:universities, it lacks a See also:faculty of See also:medicine. Its See also:average number of students varies from 300 to 350. In 1900 there were also 19 real-gymnasia, teaching See also:science, See also:art and See also:modern languages, as well as See also:classics and See also:mathematics; 1400 elementary See also:schools; and a few See also:special institutions, such as the See also:naval and military See also:academies of Fiume, ecclesiastical seminaries and commercial colleges. In almost every See also:case the language of instruction is Serbo-Croatian. The development of higher education, without a corresponding advance of technical education, has created an intellectual class, comprising many men of letters, and several painters, musicians and sculptors, though none of great See also:eminence; it also tends to produce many aspirants to official or professional careers, who find employment difficult to obtain. The want of a strong native middle class may partly be traced to this tendency. History. See also:Medieval historians did not use the terms Croatia and Slavonia in their See also:present sense. The Croatia of the middle ages comprised north-western Bosnia, See also:Turkish Croatia, and the region now known as Upper Croatia. The whole country between the Drave and Save, thus including a large part of modern Croatia, was called in Latin Slavonia, in German Windisches Land, and in Hungarian Tbtorszdg, to distinguish it from the territories in which the Croats were racially supreme (Horvdtorszdg). At the time of their See also:conquest by the Romans (35 B.C.) both these divisions were occupied by the Pannonians, who in Slavonia had displaced an older population, the See also:Scordisci; and both were included in the Roman See also:province of See also:Pannonia Inferior, although Slavonia had the distinctive name of Pannonia Savia (see PANNoNIA). When the Roman dominions were broken up in A.D. 395, Croatia-Slavonia remained part of the Western empire. The See also:Ostrogoths overran it in 489; in 535 it was annexed by Justinian; in 568 it was conquered by the See also:Avars. These were in turn expelled from Croatia by the Croats, a Slavonic See also:people from the western Carpathians, who, according to some authorities, had occupied the territories of the See also:Marcomanni in Bohemia, and been driven thence in the 6th century by the Czechs. The main body of the Croats, whose tribal and racial names respectively are perpetuated in the names of Croatia and Slavonia, entered Croatia between 634 and 638, and were encouraged by the See also:emperor See also:Heraclius to attack the Avars. Smaller bodies had led the way southwards since 548. The Croats formed the western division of the great migratory See also:horde of Serbo-Croats which colonized the lands between See also:Bulgaria and the Adriatic. Contemporary chroniclers called them Chrobati, Belochrobati (" White Croats"), Chrovati, Horvati, or by some similar Latin or See also:Byzantine variant of the Slavonic Khrvaty. The Croats occupied most of the region now known as Croatia-Slavonia, Dalmatia, and north-western Bosnia, displacing or absorbing the earlier inhabitants everywhere except along the Dalmatian littoral, where the Italian city-states usually maintained their See also:independence, and in certain districts of Slavonia, where, out of a mixed population of Slavonic immigrants, Avars and Pannonians, the Slays, and especially the Serbo-Croats, gradually became predominant. The Croats brought with them their primitive tribal institutions, organized on a basis partly military, partly patriarchal, and identical with the Zhupanates of the Serbs (see SExvIA); agriculture, See also:war and See also:hunting were their chief pursuits. Although they at first acknowledged no alien See also:sovereign, they passed gradually under Italian See also:influence in the extreme west, and under Byzantine influence in the south and south-east. In 8o6 the northern and north-eastern districts were added to the empire of the See also:Franks, and thus won for the Western Church. Frankish predominance was long commemorated by the name Francochorion, given by the Byzantinesto Syrmia; it is still commemorated by the name Fruska Gora, " Mountains of the Franks," in that province.
The Croatian Kingdom: c. 910-1091.—In 877 the Croats were temporarily subdued by the Byzantine emperor, but after successive insurrections which tended to centralize their loosely knit tribal organization, and to See also:place all power in the hands of a military chief, they regained their independence and founded a national kingdom about 91o. It is probable that Tomislav or Timislav, who had led their armies to victory, assumed the See also:title of See also: On this view, Drzislav (c. 978–1000) was the first king properly so called. But Tomislav, whatever his official See also:style, was certainly the first of a See also:series of See also:independent national rulers which lasted for nearly two centuries. The records of this period, regarded by many Croats as the See also:golden See also:age of their country, are often scanty, and its See also:chronology is still unsettled. Little is known of Trpimir, who preceded Drzislav, or of See also:Stephen I. (1035–1058), but a few of the See also:kings gained a more lasting fame by their success in war and See also:diplomacy. Among these were Kresimir I. (c. 940–946), his successor Miroslav, and especially Kresimir II., surnamed the Great (c. 1000-1035), who harried the Bulgarians, at that time a powerful nation, and conquered a large part of Dalmatia, including some of the Italian cities. Already, under his predecessors, the Croats had built a See also:fleet, which they used first for piracy and afterwards for trade. Their skill in maritime affairs, exemplified first in the 9th century by the See also:pagan corsairs of the Narenta (see DALMATIA: History), and later by the numerous Dalmatian and Croatian sailors who served in the navies of Venice and Austria, is remark-able in a Slavonic people, and one which had so recently migrated from central See also:Europe. At the end of the loth century they even for a See also:short period exacted See also:tribute from Venice, but their power was temporarily destroyed in moo, when the Venetians captured and sacked Biograd or Belgrade, the Italian Zaravecchia. This Dalmatian See also:port was not only the Croatian See also:arsenal, but the seat of the kings, who here sought to enhance their dignity by borrowing the grandiose titles and elaborate See also:procedure of the Byzantine court. Kresimir II. and Kresimir See also:Peter (c. 1058–1073), the See also:hero of many national legends and See also:lays, restored the naval power of the Croats. After the death of Kresimir Peter, Slavic or Slavika reigned until 1076, when he was succeeded by Zvonimir (Svinimir or Zvoinimir) See also:Demetrius. Zvonimir was crowned by the See also:legate of Pope See also:Gregory VII., and appears to have been regarded as a See also:vassal of the papacy. Both he and Stephen II., a See also:nephew of Kresimir II., died in 1089. Hungarian Supremacy: 1091–c. 1526.—Amid the strife of See also:rival claimants to the See also:throne, See also:Helena, the widow of Stephen, appealed for aid to her See also:brother See also:Ladislaus I., king of Hungary. Ladislaus took See also:possession of the country in 1o91. He founded the bishopric of Agram and introduced Hungarian law. His death in 1095 was the See also:signal for a nationalist insurrection, but after two years the rebels were crushed by his successor See also:Coloman. This monarch reorganized the administration on a system which has been maintained, with modifications in detail, by almost all subsequent rulers. He respected the existing institutions of the conquered territory so far as to leave its See also:autonomy in domestic affairs intact; but delegated his own See also:sovereignty, and especially the control of foreign affairs and war, to a See also:governor known as the ban (q.v.). This See also:office was sometimes held by princes of the royal See also:house, often by Croatian nobles. Coloman also extended his authority over Dalmatia and the islands of the Quarnero, but the best modern. authorities reject the tradition that in 1102 he was crowned king of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia. In 1127 Syrmia, which had been annexed to Bulgaria from about 700 to 1or8, and to the Eastern empire from 1019, was united to Slavonia. The Hungarian government See also:left much See also:liberty to the Croatian nobles, a turbulent and fanatical class, ever ready for See also:civil war, See also:rebellion or a See also:campaign against the Bosnian heretics. Their most powerful leaders were the See also:counts of Zrin and Bribir (or Brebir), whose surname was Subic. This family played an important part in local politics from the 13th century to 1670, when Peter Subic was its last member to hold the office of ban. See also:Paul Subic (d. 1312) and Mladen Subic (d. 1322) even for a short period united Croatia, Slavonia, Bosnia and part of Dalmatia under their own rule. From 1322 to 1326 the Croatian nobles successfully withstood the armies of Hungary and Bosnia; from 1337 to 1340, instigated by the Vatican, they carried on a crusade against the Bosnian See also:Bogomils; and in the Krajina (Turkish Croatia) hostilities were resumed at intervals until the Turkish conquest. The Turkish Occupation: c. 1526-1718.—Here, as elsewhere, the See also:Ottoman invasion was facilitated by the feuds of the See also:Christian sects. When King See also:Matthias See also:Corvinus undertook to defend Slavonia in 1490 it was too late; Matthias lost Syrmia and died in the same year. His successor Ladislaus of See also:Poland (149o-1516) added Slavonia to the kingdoms named in the royal title, which now included the words " King of Dalmatia and Croatia and Slavonia" (Rex Dalmatiae et Croaliae et Slavoniae). But he failed to repel the See also:Turks, who in 1526 destroyed the power of Hungary at .the See also:battle of See also:Mohacs. In 1527 the Croats were compelled to swear See also:allegiance to Ferdinand I. of Austria, who had been elected king of Hungary. Ferdinand founded the generalcy of Karlstadt and thus laid the See also:foundation of the military frontier. The provinces of Agram, Warasdin and Kreutz, previously included in Slavonia, were added to Croatia, to counterbalance the loss of territory in the Krajina. Through-out the century the Turks continued to extend their conquests until, in 16o6, the emperor retained only western Croatia, with the cities of Agram, Karlstadt, Warasdin and Zengg. During the same period the doctrines of the See also:Reformation had spread among the Croats; but they were forcibly suppressed in 1607-161o. The military occupation by the Turks left little permanent impression; colonization was never attempted; and the continuous See also:wars by which the victors strove to secure or enlarge their dominions north of the Save left no time for the introduction of Moslem religion or civilization among the vanquished. Thus in the reconquest of Croatia-Slavonia there was none of the local opposition which afterwards hindered the Austrian occupation of Bosnia. The successes of See also:Prince See also:Eugene in 1697 led two years later to the See also:peace of Carlowitz, by which the Turks ceded the greater part of Slavonia and Hungary to Austria; and the remainder was surrendered in 1718 by the treaty of Passarowitz. Only Turkish Croatia henceforth remained part of the Ottoman empire. Austrian and French Supremacy: 1718 - 1814.—Austrian influence predominated throughout Croatia-Slavonia during most of the 18th century, although Slavonia was constitutionally regarded as belonging to Hungary. Despite Magyar protests the misleading name " Croatia " was popularly and even in official documents applied to the whole country, including the purely Slavonian provinces of Virovitica, Pozega and Syrmia. From 1767 to 1777 Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia were collectively named See also:Illyria, and governed from See also:Vienna, but each of these divisions was subsequently declared a separate kingdom, with a separate administration, while the military frontier remained under military rule. In 1776 the Croatian seaboard, which had previously been under the same administration as the See also:rest of the Austrian coast, was annexed to Croatia, but three years later Fiume was declared an integral part of Hungary. These administrative changes, and especially the brief existence of united " Illyria," stimulated the dormant nationalism of the Croats and their See also:jealousy of the See also:Magyars. In 1809 Austria was forced to surrender to See also:Napoleon a large part of Croatia, with Dalmatia, Istria, See also:Carinthia, Carniola, See also:Gorz and See also:Gradisca. These territories received the name of the Illyrian Provinces, and remained under French rule until 1813. All the Croats capable of service were enrolled under the French See also:flag; their country was divided for administrative purposes into Croatie civile and Croatie militaire. In 1814 Dalmatia was incorporated in Austria, while Istria, Carinthia, Carniola, Gorz and Gradisca became the Illyrian kingdom of Austria, and retained their united government until 1849. Croatia and Slavonia weredeclared appanages of the Hungarian crown—partes adnexae, or subject provinces, according to the Magyars; regna socia, or allied kingdoms, according to their own view. Each phrase afterwards became the watchword of a political party: neither is accurate. The Croats preserved their local autonomy, the use of their language for official purposes, their elected See also:diet and other See also:ancient institutions, but Hungarian control was represented by the ban. The National Revival.—The Croats acquiesced in their position of inferiority until 184o, when the Magyars endeavoured to introduce Hungarian as the official language. A nationalist or " Illyrist " party was formed under See also:Count Dra"skovic and Bishop J. Strossmayer (q.v.) to combat Hungarian influence and promote the See also:union of the " Illyrian " Slays, i.e. the Slovenes, Cxoats and Serbs. Ljudevit Gaj, the leading Croatian publicist, strongly supported the See also:movement. The elections of 1842 were marked by a series of sanguinary conflicts between Illyrists and Magyarists, but not until 1848 were the Illyrists returned to office. One of their leaders, See also:Baron Josef See also:Jellachich, was appointed ban in 1848. He strongly advocated the union of Croatia with Carinthia, Carniola and Styria, but found his policy thwarted as much by the apathy of the Slovenes as by the hostility of the Magyars. A Croatian deputation was received at See also:Innsbruck by Ferdinand V., but before its arrival the Hungarians had obtained a royal manifesto hostile to Illyrism. But failure only increased the agitation among the southern Slays; all attempts at See also:mediation proved unsuccessful, and on the 31st of See also:August the Croats claimed to have convinced the king that justice was on their See also:side. On the 11th of See also:September the advance-guard of their army crossed the Drave under the command of Jellachich. On the 29th they were driven back from Pakozd by the Hungarians, and retired towards Vienna; they subsequently aided the Austrian army against the Hungarian revolutionaries (see JELLACHICH, JOSEF, and HUNGARY: History). The constitution of 1849 proclaimed Croatia and Slavonia separated from Hungary and united as a single Austrian crownland, to which was annexed the Croatian littoral, including Fiume. Austrian supremacy lasted until 1867; no ban was appointed, and owing to the suspension of local autonomy from 185o to 186o this period is known as " the ten years of reaction." It was ended by the celebrated " See also:October Diploma " of the loth of October 186o, which promised the restoration of constitutional liberty. But the so-called " Constitution of See also:February" (21st February 1861) placed all See also:practical power in the hands of an executive controlled by the government at Vienna. The newly elected diet was soon dissolved for its advocacy of a great South Slavonic See also:confederation under imperial rule, and no other was elected until 1865. From 1865 to 1867 Strossmayer and the nationalists endeavoured to secure the formation of a subordinate Austrian kingdom comprising Dalmatia, Croatia-Slavonia and the islands of the Quarnero. The Magyars had, however, resolved to subject Croatia-Slavonia to the crown of St Stephen, and in 1867 had secured control of the finances and electoral machinery The office of ban was revived, and its holder, Baron Levin See also:Rauch, was an ardent Magyarist. At the elections of December 1867 a majority of Hungarian partisans was easily obtained, and on the 29th of See also:January the diet passed a See also:resolution in favour of See also:reunion with Hungary. The whole Opposition refused to take any part in the proceedings, as a protest against the alleged illegality of the elections; but by the 25th of See also:June the Croatian commissioners and the Hungarian government had framed a new constitution, which was ratified in September. Besides substituting Hungarian for Austrian sovereignty, it provided that the diet and the ban should control local affairs, subject to the Croatian minister in the Hungarian cabinet, and that Croatia-Slavonia should pay 55% of its See also:revenue to Hungary for mutual and imperial expenses, but should be represented in the Hungarian parliament by See also:thirty-six delegates, and should continue to use Serbo-Croatian as the official language. Hungary guaranteed that the 45% retained by the territorial government should be not less than two and a half million gulden (250,000). In May 187o Fiume was annexed to Hungary, but in 1873 the Croats received as See also:compensation an increase of their guaranteed revenue to £350,000, an addition of seven to the number of their representatives at Budapest, and a promise that the military frontier should be incorporated in the existing civil provinces. In 1877 a See also:convention with Hungary regulated the control of public estates in the military frontier, and on the 15th of See also:July 1881 the frontier, including the district of Sichelburg claimed by Carniola, was handed over to the local administration. Meanwhile the events of 1875-1878 in the Balkans, culminating in the Austrian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, revived the agitation for a "Great Croatia." A party separate from the See also:regular Opposition, and known as the "Party of the Right," was formed to oppose the Magyarists. Its activity resulted in the riots of 1883, which were with difficulty quelled; in 1885 its See also:leader, N. Starcevic, was condemned to imprisonment for the violence of his speeches against the ban, Count Khuen-Hedervary. In 1888 the moderate Opposition also lost its leader, Bishop Strossmayer, who was censured by the king on See also:account of his famous Panslavist telegram to the See also:Russian Church (see STROSSMAYER). In 1889 the See also:financial agreement with Hungary was revised and the contribution of Croatia-Slavonia to the expenses shared with Hungary or common to the whole of the Dual Monarchy was raised by 1%. This added See also:burden combined with See also:bad harvests, a fall in the revenue and a deficit in the See also:budget to heighten popular discontent. Count Khuen-Hedervary was responsible for several administrative improvements, but the prosperity of the country declined from year to year. The government was accused of illegal interference with the elections, with the use of the Hungarian arms and language in official documents, and with undue harshness in the censorship of the See also:press. In May 1903 there were outbreaks of rioting in Agram, Sissek and other towns, besides serious agrarian disturbances directed against the Magyarist land-owners; in a debate in the Reichsrath With May) an Austrian See also:deputy named See also:Bianchini unsuccessfully attempted to induce the imperial government to intervene. At the end of June Count Khuen-Hedervary was made Hungarian See also:prime minister; Count T. Pejacevic succeeded him as ban, and restored quiet by promising freedom of assembly and greater liberty of the press. Since 1898 the financial agreement had only been renewed from year to year. But the estimates for 1904 revealed another heavy deficit; and this was only paid by Hungary on See also:condition that the agreement should be renewed until the 31st of December 1913, and the contribution of 56 % maintained. The constitutional crisis of 1905 in Hungary stimulated the nationalist agitation. A See also:congress of Croatian and Dalmatian deputies met at See also:Spalato to See also:advocate Serbo-Croatian unity, and in 1906 the See also:municipality of Agram endeavoured to See also:petition the king in favour of union with Bosnia and Herzegovina. This propaganda was severely discouraged. Baron Rauch, appointed ban in 1908, refused to summon the diet, in which he could not command a single See also:vote, and much excitement was caused in 1909 by the trial of 57 nationalist leaders for high See also:treason. The policy of the nationalists, who now aimed at the political union, under the king-emperor, of all Serbo-Croats in Austria-Hungary—upwards of 4,500,000—was less visionary than the older Illyrism, and less aggressively Panslavist. It no longer sought to include Carinthia, Carniola and Styria in the proposed " Great Croatia." It was opposed by Austria as tending to create a new and formidable Slavonic nation within the Dual Monarchy, and by Hungary as a menace to Magyar predominance in Transleithania. Language and Literature. For the place of the Croatian dialects among Slavonic languages generally, see See also:SLAVS. The Croatian dialects, like the Servian, have gradually See also:developed from the Old Slavonic, which survives in medieval liturgies and biblical or apocryphal writings. The course of this development was similar in both cases, except that the Croats, owing to their dependence on Austria-Hungary, were not so deeply influenced as the Serbs by Byzantine culture in the middle ages, and by Russian linguistic forms and Russian ideas in modern times. The Orthodox Serbs, moreover, use a modified form of the Cyrillic alphabet, while the Roman Catholic Croats use Latin characters, except in a few liturgical books which are written in the ancient Glagolitic script. As the literary language of both nations is now practically the same, and is, indeed, commonly known as " Serbo-Croatian," the reader may be referred to the See also:article SERVIA: Language and Literature, for an account of its history, of its chief literary monuments up to the 19th century and inclusive of Dalmatian literature, and of the principal See also:differences between the dialects spoken in Servia and Croatia-Slavonia. The three most important Croatian dialects are known as the Cakavci, Cakavitina or, in Servian, Chakayski, spoken along the Adriatic littoral; the Stokavci (Stokaystina, Shtokayski), spoken in Servia and elsewhere in the north-west of the Balkan Peninsula; and the Kajkavci (Kajkaystina, Kaykayski), spoken by the partly Slovene population of the districts of Agram, Warasdin and Kreuz. This See also:classification is based on the form, varying in different localities, of the pronoun ca, Bo, or kaj, meaning" what." The Cakavci literature includes most of the works of 'the Dalmatian writers of the 15th and 16th centuries—the golden age of Serbo-Croatian literature. Its history is indissolubly interwoven with that of the Stokavci, which ultimately superseded it, and became the literary language of all the Serbo-Croats, as it had long been the language of the best national See also:ballads and legends Kajkavci had from about 1550 to 1830 a distinctive literature, consisting of See also:chronicles and histories, poems of a religious or educational character, fables and moral tales. These writings possess more philological interest than literary merit, and are hardly known outside Croatia-Slavonia and the Slovene districts of Austria. Apart from the Kajkavci dialect, the whole body of Serbo-Croatian literature up to the 19th century may justly be regarded as the common heritage of Serbs and Croats. The linguistic and literary reforms which Dossitey Obradovich and Vuk Stefanovich See also:Karajich carried out in Servia about the close of this period helped to stimulate among the Croats a new interest in their national history, their traditions, folk-songs and folk-tales. One result of this nationalist revival was the unsuccessful See also:attempt made between 1814 and 183o to raise the Cakavci dialect to the See also:rank of a distinctive literary language for Croatia-Slavonia; but the Illyrist movement of 184o led to the See also:adoption of the Stokavci, which was already the See also:vernacular of the majority of Serbo-Croats. Ljudevit Gaj (1809-1872), though he failed to create an artificial literary language by the See also:fusion of the principal dialects spoken by Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, was by his championship of Illyrism instrumental in securing the See also:triumph of the Stokavci. Gaj was a poet of considerable See also:talent, and one of the founders of Croatian journalism. Among other writers of the first half of the 19th century may be mentioned See also:Ivan Maiuranic (1813-1890), whose first poems were published in the Danica ilirska ("Illyrian Dawnstar "), a See also:journal founded and for a time edited by Gaj. In 1846 Maiuranic published his Smrt Smail See also:Aga Cengica (" Death of See also:Ismail Aga Cengic "), called by Serbo-Croats the " Epos of Hate." This remarkable poem, written in the See also:metre of the old Servian ballads, gives a vivid description of life in Bosnia under Turkish rule, and of the hereditary border feuds between Christians and Moslems. In later life Maiuranic distinguished himself as a statesman, and became ban of Croatia from 1873 to 1880. Other writers repre sentative of Croatian literature before 1867 were the lyric poet Stanko Vraz (1810-1851) and Dragutin Rakovac (1813-1854), the author of many patriotic songs. With the foundation of the South Slavonic Academy at Agram, in 1867, the study of science and history received a new impetus. Under the See also:presidency of Franko Racki (1825-1894) the academy, with its journal the Rad jugoskovenske Akademije, became the headquarters of an active See also:group of savants, among whom may be mentioned Vastroslav Jagic (b. 1838), sometime editor of the Archiv See also:fur slavische Philologie; the historians Sime Ljubic (1822–1896) and Vjekoslav Klaic, author of several See also:standard works on Croatia and the Croats; the lexicographer Bogoslav Sulek (1816–1895); the ethnographer and philologist Franko Karelac (1811–1874). In Dalmatia, where the Ragusan journal Slovinac has served, like the Agram Rad, as a See also:focus of literary activity, there have been numerous poets and See also:prose writers, associated, in many cases, with the Illyrist or the nationalist propaganda. Among these may be mentioned Count Medo Pucic (1821–1882), and the dramatist Matija Ban (1818–r9o3), whose tragedy Meyrimah is considered by many the finest dramatic poem in the Serbo-Croatian language. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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