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AND JOSAPHAT (q.v.)
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AND JOSAPHAT (q.v.) .
The religious See also:poetry of the Greeks primarily suffered from the See also:influence of the See also:ancient See also:Greek See also:form, which was fatal to Religious See also:original development. The See also:oldest See also:work of this class is poetry. the hymn, composed in anapaestic monometers and
dimeters, which was handed down in the See also:manuscripts with the Paedagogus of See also:Clement of See also:Alexandria (d. about 215), but was probably not his work. The next piece of this class is the famous " Maidens' See also:Song " in the Banquet of St See also:Methodius (d. about 311), in which many striking violations of the old rules of quantity are already apparent. More faithful to the tradition of the See also:schools was See also:Gregory of Nazianzus. But, owing to the fact that he generally employed antiquated versification and very erudite See also:language, his poems failed to reach the See also:people or to find a See also:place in the services of the See also: About the first period we know, unfortunately, comparatively little. It appears that in it church See also:music was in the See also:main confined to the insertion of See also:short songs between the Psalms or other portions of See also:Holy See also:Writ and the acclamations of the See also:congregation. The oldest rhythmic songs date from Gregory of Nazianzushis " Maidens' Song " and his " Evening Hymn." Church poetry reached its highest expression in the second period, in the See also:grand development of the hymns, i.e. lengthy songs comprising from twenty to See also:thirty similarly constructed strophes, each connected with the next in See also:acrostic See also:fashion. Hymnology, again, attained its highest perfection in the first See also:half of the 6th See also:century with See also:Romanos, who in the See also:great number and excellence of his hymns dominated this See also:species of poetry, as See also:Homer did the Greek epic. From this period See also:dates, moreover, the most famous song of the Greek Church, the so-called Acathistus, an See also:anonymous hymn of praise to the Virgin See also:Mary, which hassometimes, but erroneously, been attributed to the See also:patriarch See also:Sergius.
Church poetry entered upon a new See also:stage, characterized by an increase in See also:artistic finish and a falling off in poetical vigour, with the See also:composition of the Canones, songs artfully Canones. built up out of eight or nine lyrics, all differently
constructed. Andreas, See also:archbishop of See also:Crete (c. 650-72o), is regarded as the inventor of this new class of song. His See also:chief work, " the great See also:Canon," comprises no less than 250 strophes. The most celebrated writers of Canones are See also: Later, sacred poetry was more particularly cultivated in the monastery of the Studium at See also:Constantinople by the See also: The most clearly marked stage in the development of a See also:Christian-Byzantine universal history was the See also:chronicle (unfortunately lost) written by the Hellenized See also:Jew, Justus of See also:Tiberias, at the beginning of the 2nd century of the Christian era; this work began with the See also:story of See also:Moses. Byzantine histories of contemporary events do not differ substantially from ancient historical works, except in their Christian colouring. Yet even this is often very faint and blurred owing to See also:close adherence to ancient methods. Apart from this, neither a new style nor a new See also:critical method nor any radically new views appreciably altered the main character of Byzantine historiography. In their style most Byzantine compilers of contemporary history followed the beaten track of older historians, e.g. Herodotus, See also:Thucydides, and, in some details, also See also:Polybius. But, in spite of their often excessive tendency to See also:imitation, they displayed considerable See also:power in the delineation of character and were not wanting in See also:independent See also:judgment. As regards the selection of their matter, they adhered to the old See also:custom of beginning their narrative where their predecessors See also:left off. The outstripping of the Latin See also:West by the Greek East, which after the close of the 4th century was a self-evident fact, is reflected in historiography also. After See also:Constantine the Great, the history of the See also:empire, although its Latin character was maintained until the 6th century, was mostly written by Greeks; e.g. See also:Eunapius (c. 400), See also:Olympiodorus (c. 450), See also:Priscus (c. 450), Malchus (c. 490), and See also:Zosimus, the last See also:pagan historian (c. 500), all of whom, with the exception of Zosimus, are unfortunately preserved to us only in fragments. Historiography received a great impulse in the 6th century. The powerful See also:Procopius and See also:Agathias (q.v.), tinged with poetical See also:rhetoric, described the stirring and eventful times of Justinian, while See also:Theophanes of See also:Byzantium, See also:Menander See also:Protector, Johannes of Epiphaneia. and Theophylactus of See also:Simocatta described the second half of the 6th century. Towards the close of the 6th century also flourished the last independent ecclesiastical historian, See also:Evagrius, who wrote the history of the church from 431 to 593. There now followed, however, a lamentable falling off in See also:production. From the 7th to the loth century the historical See also:side is represented by a few chronicles, and it was not until the loth century that, owing to the revival of ancient classical studies, the art of writing history showed some signs of See also:life. .Several historical works are associated with the name of the See also:emperor Constantine VII. Porphyrogenitus. To his learned circle be-longed also Joseph Genesius, who at the emperor's instance compiled the history of the period from 813 to 886. A little work, interesting from the point of view of historical and ethnographical See also:science, is the account of the taking of Thessalonica by the Cretan Corsairs (A.D. 904), which a See also:priest, Johannes Cameniata, an eyewitness of the event, has bequeathed to posterity. There is also contained in the excellent work of See also:Leo Diaconus (on the period from 959 to 975) a graphic account of the bloody See also:wars of the Byzantines with the See also:Arabs in Crete and with the Bulgarians. A continuation was undertaken by the philosopher See also:Michael See also:Psellus in a work covering the period from 976 to 1077. A valuable supplement to the latter (describing the period from 1034 to 1079) was supplied by the jurist Michael Attaliata. The history of the Eastern empire during the See also:Crusades was written in four considerable works, by Nicephorus See also:Bryennius, his learned See also:consort See also:Anna Comnena, the " honest Aetolian," Johannes See also:Cinnamus, and finally by Nicetas See also:Acominatus in an exhaustive work which is authoritative for the history of the 4th Crusade. The See also:melancholy conditions and the ever increasing decay of the empire under the Palaeologi (13th–15th centuries) are described in the same lofty style, though with a still closer following of classical models. The events which took place between the taking of Constantinople by the Latins and the restoration of Byzantine See also:rule (1203–1261) are recounted ,by Georgius See also:Acropolita, who emphasizes his own See also:share in them. The succeeding period was written by the versatile Georgius See also:Pachymeres, the erudite and high-principled Nicephorus See also:Gregoras, and the emperor John VI. Cantacuzenus. Lastly, the See also:death-struggle between the East See also:Roman empire and the mighty rising power of the Ottomans was narrated by three historians, all differing in culture and in style, Laonicus Chalcocondyles, See also:Ducas and Georgius Phrantzes. With them may be classed a See also:fourth (though he lived outside the Byzantine period), Critobulus, a high-See also:born Greek of See also:Imbros, who wrote, in the style of the age of See also:Pericles, the history of the times of the sultan Mahommed II. (down to 1467). The essential importance of the Byzantine chronicles (mostly chronicles of the history of the world from the Creation) consists in the fact that they in See also:part replace older lost works, Citron- and thus fill up many gaps in our historical survey ides. (e.g. for the period from about 600 to Soo of which very few records remain). They See also:lay no claim to See also:literary merit, but are often serviceable for the history of language. Many such chronicles were furnished with illustrations. The remains of one such illustrated chronicle on See also:papyrus, dating from the beginning' of the 5th century, has been preserved for us by the See also:soil of See also:Egypt.' The authors of the chronicles were mostly monks, ,who wished to compile handbooks of universal history for their brethren and for pious laymen; and this explains the strong clerical and popular tendency of these works. And it is due to 'See Ad. See also:Bauer and J. Strzygowski, " Eine alexandrinische Weltchronik•" (1905) (Denkschrift der kaiserlich. Akademie der Wissenschaften, li.).these two qualities that the chronicles obtained a circulation abroad, both in the West and also among the peoples Christianized from Byzantium, e.g. the Slays, and in all of them sowed the seeds of an indigenous historical literature. Thus the chronicles, despite the jejuneness of their style and their uncritical treatment of material were for the See also:general culture of the See also:middle ages of far greater importance than the erudite contemporary histories designed only for the highly educated circles in Byzantium. The oldest Byzantine chronicle of universal history preserved to us is that of See also:Malalas (6th century), which is also the purest type of this class of literature. In the 7th century was completed the famous See also:Easter or See also:Paschal Chronicle (Chronicon Paschale). About the end of the 8th or the beginning of the 9th century Georgius See also:Syncellus compiled a concise chronicle, which began with the Creation and was continued down to the See also:year 284. At the See also:request of the author, when on his death-See also:bed, the continuation of this work was undertaken by Theophanes See also:Confessor, who brought down the account from A.D. 284 to his own times (A.D. 813). This exceedingly valuable work of Theophanes was again continued (from 813–961) by several anonymous chroniclers. A contemporary of Theophanes, the patriarch Nicephorus, wrote, in addition to a Short History of the period from 602 to 769, a See also:chronological See also:sketch from See also:Adam down to the year of his own death in 829. Of great influence on the age that followed was Georgius Monachus, only second in importance as chronicler of the See also:early Byzantine period, who compiled a chronicle of the world's history (from Adam until the year 843, the end of the Iconoclast See also:movement), far more theological and monkish in character than the work of Theophanes. Among later chroniclers Johannes Scylitza stands out conspicuously. His work (covering the period from 811 to 1057), as regards the range of its subject-matter, is something between a universal and a contemporary history. Georgius Cedrenus (c. Too) embodied the whole of Scylitza's work, almost unaltered, in his Universal Chronicle. In the 12th century the general increase in literary production was evident also in the See also:department of chronicles of the world. From this period dates, for instance, the most distinguished and learned work of this class, the great universal chronicle of John Zonaras. In the same century Michael See also:Glycas compiled his chronicle of the world's history, a work written in the old popular style and designed for the widest circles of readers. Lastly, in the 12th century, Constantine See also:Manasses wrote a universal chronicle in the so-called " See also:political " verse. With this verse-chronicle must be classed the imperial chronicle of Ephraem, written in Byzantine trimeters at the beginning of the 14th century. See also:Geography and See also:topography, subjects so closely connected with history, were as much neglected by the Byzantines as by their political forerunners, the See also:Romans. Of purely See also:practical importance are a few handbooks of See also:navigation, grap aphy. itineraries, guides for pilgrims, and catalogues of provinces and cities, See also:metropolitan See also:sees and bishoprics. The See also:geographical work of Stephanus of Byzantium, which dates from Justinian's See also:time, has been lost. To the same period belongs the only large geographical work which has been preserved to us, the Christian Topography of Cosmas Indicopleustes. For the topography of Constantinople a work entitled Ancient History (Patria)- of Constantinople, which may be compared to the See also:medieval Mirabilia urbis Romae, and in See also:late manuscripts has been wrongly attributed to a certain See also:Codinus, is of great importance. Ancient Greek See also:philosophy under the empire sent forth two new shoots—Neopythagoreanism and See also:Neoplatonism. It was
the latter with which moribund paganism essayed to Phil
See also:stem the advancing See also:tide of See also:Christianity. The last great soppy. exponent of this philosophy was See also:Proclus in See also:Athens
(d. 485). The See also:dissolution, by See also:order of Justinian, of the school of philosophy at Athens in 529 was a fatal See also:blow to this nebulous See also:system, which had long since outlived the conditions that made it a living force. In the succeeding period philosophical activity was of two main kinds; on the one hand, the old philosophy, e.g. that of See also:Aristotle, was employed to systematize Christian
See also:doctrine, while, on the other, the old works were furnished with copious commentaries and paraphrases. See also:Leontius of Byzantium had already introduced Aristotelian See also:definitions into Christology; but the real founder of medieval ecclesiastical philosophy was John of Damascus. Owing, however, to his having early attained to canonical authority, the independent progress of ecclesiastical philosophy was arrested; and to this it is due that in this respect the later Byzantine period is far poorer than is the West. Byzantium cannot boast a scholastic like See also: The anxious See also:attention paid to the See also:laws of rhetoric and the unrestricted use of its withered See also:flowers were detrimental to a great part of the See also:rest of Byzantine literature, and greatly hampered the development of any individuality and simplicity of style. None the less, among the rhetorical productions of the time are to be found a few interesting pieces, such as the See also:Philopatris, in the style of See also:Lucian, which gives us a remarkable picture of the times of Nicephorus See also:Phocas (loth century). In two other smaller works a See also:journey to the dwellings of the dead is described, after the See also:pattern of Lucian's Nekyomanteia, viz. in Timarion (12th century) and in Mazaris' Journey to the Underworld (c. 1414). A very charming representative of Byzantine rhetoric is Michael Acominatus, who, in addition to theological works, wrote numerous occasional speeches, letters and poems.
In the See also: A truly sympathetic figure is See also:Eustathius, the famous archbishop of Thessalonica (12th century). His volumin- ous commentaries on Homer, however, See also:rivet the attention less than his enthusiastic devotion to science, his energetic See also:action on behalf of the preservation of the literary works of antiquity, and last, not least, his See also:frank and heroic character, which had nothing in it of the Byzantine. If, on the other hand, acquaintance with a See also:caricature of Byzantine philology be desired, it is afforded by Johannes See also:Tzetzes, a contemporary of Eustathius, a Greek in neither name nor spirit, narrow-minded, angular, superficial, and withal immeasurably conceited and ridiculously coarse in his polemics. The transition to Western See also:humanism was effected by the philologists of the period of the Palaeologi, such as See also:Maximus See also:Planudes, whose See also:translations of numerous works renewed the long-broken ties between Byzantium and the West; See also:Manuel See also:Moschopulus, whose grammatical works and commentaries were, down to the 16th century, used as school See also:text-books; See also:Demetrius Triclinius, distinguished as a textual critic; the versatile Theodorus Metochites, and others. Originally, as is well known, Latin was the exclusive language of Roman See also:law. But with Justinian, who codified the laws in his Corpus See also:juris, the Hellenizing of the legal language also began. The Institutes and the See also:Digest were trans- prudde eunce. lated into Greek, and the Novels also were issued in Pr a Greek form. Under the Macedonian See also:dynasty there began, after a long stagnation, the resuscitation of the See also:code of Justinian. The emperor Basilius I. (867–886) had extracts made from the existing law, and made preparations for the codifying of all laws. But the whole work was not completed till the time of Leo VI. the See also:Wise •(886–912), and Constantine VII. Porphyrogenitus (912–959), when it took the form of a grand compilation from the Digests, the Codex, and the Novels, and is commonly known as the See also:Basilica (Ta i wmXtKa). In the East it completely superseded the old Latin Corpus juris of Justinian. More that was new was produced, during the Byzantine period, in canon law than in See also:secular legislation. The purely ecclesiastical rules of law, the Canones, were blended with those of See also:civil law, and thus arose the so-called Nomocanon, the most important edition of which is that of Theodorus Bestes in 1090. The alphabetical handbook of canon law written by Matthaeus Blastares about the year 1335 also exercised a great influence. In the See also:province of See also:mathematics and See also:astronomy the remarkable fact must be recorded that the revival among the Greeks of these long-forgotten studies was primarily due to Mathe-Perso-Arabian influence. The Great Syntaxis of matics See also:Ptolemy operated in the See also:oriental See also:guise of the Almagest. and as-The most important See also:direct source of this intellectual f0i my. See also:loan was not See also:Arabia, however, but See also:Persia. Towards the close of the 13th century the Greeks became acquainted with See also:Persian astronomy. At the beginning of the 14th century Georgius Chrysococca and See also:Isaac Argyrus wrote astronomical treatises based on Persian works. Then the Byzantines themselves, notably Theodorus Metochites and Nicephorus Gregoras, at last had recourse to the original Greek See also:sources. The Byzantines did much independent work in the field of military science. The most valuable work of the period on this subject is one on See also:tactics, which has sciennce. Mli ce. come down to posterity associated with the name of Leo VI., the Wise. Of profane poetry—in complete contrast to sacred poetry—the general characteristic was its close imitation of the See also:antique in point of form. All works belonging to this category reproduce the ancient style and are framed after profane poetry. ancient models. The metre is, for the most part, either the Byzantine See also:regular twelve-syllable trimeter, or the " political " verse; more rarely the heroic and Anacreontic See also:measures. Epic popular poetry, in the ancient sense, begins only with the See also:vernacular Greek literature (see below); but among the literary works of the period there are several which can BPk. be compared with the epics of the Alexandrine age. See also:Nonnus (c. 400) wrote, while yet a pagan, a fantastic epic on the triumphal progress of the See also:god See also:Dionysus to See also:India, and, as a Christian, a voluminous commentary on the See also:gospel of St John. In the 7th century, Georgius Pisides sang in several lengthy See also:iambic poems the See also:martial deeds of the emperor See also:Heraclius, while the See also:deacon See also:Theodosius (loth century) immortalized in extravagant language the victories of the brave Nicephorus Phocas. Rhetoric. The sciences. BYZANTINE] From the 11th century onwards, religious, grammatical, astrological, medical, historical and allegorical poems, framed Didactic partly in duodecasyllables and partly in " political " poems. verse, made their See also:appearance in large quantities. Didactic religious poems were composed, for example, by See also:Philippus (6 Movorporres, Solitarius, c. moo), grammaticophilological poems by Johannes Tzetzes, astrological by Johannes Camaterus (12th century), others on natural science by Manuel See also:Philes (14th century) and a great moral, allegorical, didactic epic by Georgius Lapithes (14th century). To these may be added some voluminous poems, which in style and matter must be regarded as imitations of the ancient Romances. Greek romances. They all date from the 12th century, a fact evidently connected with the general revival of culture which characterizes the period of the Comneni. Two of these romances are written in the duodecasyllable metre, viz. the story of Rodanthe and Dosicles by Theodorus Prodromus, and an imitation of this work, the story of Drusilla and Charicles by Nicetas Eugenianus; one in " political " verse, the love story of See also:Aristander and Callithea by Constantine Manasses, which has only been preserved in fragments, and lastly one in See also:prose, the story of Hysmine and Hysminias, by Eustathius (or Eumathius) Macrembolita, which is the most insipid of all. The See also:objective point of view which dominated the whole Byzantine period was fatal to the development of a profane Lyrics lyrical poetry. At most a few poems by Johannes Geometres and See also:Christophorus of Mytilene and others, in which See also:personal experiences are recorded with some show of See also:taste, may be placed in this category. The dominant form for all subjective poetry was the See also:epigram, which was employed in all its See also:variations from playful trifles to long elegiac and narrative poems. Georgius Pisides (7th century) treated the most diverse themes. In the 9th century Theodorus of Studium had lighted upon the happy See also:idea of immortalizing The monastic life in a See also:series of epigrams. The same epigram. century produced the only poetess of the Byzantine period, Casia, from whom we have several epigrammatic productions and church hymns, all characterized by originality. Epigrammatic poetry reached its highest development in the loth and 11th centuries, in the productions of Johannes Geometres, Christophorus of Mytilene and John Mauropus. Less happy are Theodorus Prodromus (12th century) and Manuel Philes (14th century). From the beginning of the loth century also dates the most valuable collection of ancient and of Byzantine epigrammatic poems, the Anthologia Palatina (see See also:ANTHOLOGY). Dramatic poetry, in the strict sense of the term, was as completely lacking among the Byzantine Greeks as was the See also:condition precedent to its existence, namely, public See also:Drama. performance. Apart from some moralizing allegorical dialogues (by Theodorus Prodromus, Manuel Philes and others), we possess only a single work of the Byzantine period that, at least in See also:external form, resembles a drama: the Sufferings of See also:Christ (X pwror Hdcr wv). This work, written probably in the 12th century, or at all events not earlier, is a See also:cento, i.e. is in great measure composed of verses culled from ancient writers, e.g. See also:Aeschylus, See also:Euripides and See also:Lycophron; but it was certainly not written with a view to the dramatic production. The vernacular literature stands alone, both in form and in contents. We have here remarkable originality of conception and probably also entirely new and genuinely medieval Vernacu- matter. While in the artificial literature prose is See also:tar Greek literature. pre-eminent, in the vernacular literature, poetry, both in quantity and quality, takes .the first place, as was also the See also:case among the Latin nations, where the vulgar See also:tongue first invaded the field of poetry and only later that of prose. Though a few preliminary attempts were made (See also:proverbs, 'acclamations addressed by the people to the emperor, &c.), the Greek vernacular was employed for larger works only from the i 2th century onwards; at first in poems, of which the See also:major portion were See also:cast in " political " verse, but some in the See also:trochaic eight-syllabled See also:line. Towards the close of the 15th century See also:rhyme came into use. The subjects treated in this vernacular
523
poetry are exceedingly diverse. In the See also:capital See also:city a mixture of the learned and the popular language was first used in poems of admonition, praise and supplication. In this oldest class of " vulgar " works must be reckoned the Spaneas, an admonitory poem in imitation of the See also:letter of Pseudo-Isocrates addressed to Demonicus; a supplicatory poem composed in See also:prison by the chronicler Michael Glycas, and several begging poems of Theodorus Prodromus (Ptochoprodromos). In the succeeding period erotic poems are met with, such as the Rhodian love songs preserved in a MS. in the See also:British Museum (ed. W. See also:Wagner, See also:Leipzig, 1879), See also:fairy-See also:tale like romances such as the Story of Ptocholeon, oracles, prayers, extracts from Holy Writ, lives of See also:saints, &c. Great epic poems, in which antique subjects are treated, such as the legends of See also:Troy and of See also: In respect of importance and antiquity the great heroic epic of Digenis Akritas stands pre-eminent. Among prose works written in the vulgar tongue, or at least in a See also:compromise with it, may be mentioned the Greek rendering of two works from an See also:Indian source, the Book of the Seven Wise Masters (as See also:Syntipas the Philosopher by P vulgar" Michael Andreopulus), and the Hitopadera or See also:Mirror wor&s. of Princes (through the Arabic Kalilah and Dimnah by See also:Simeon Sethus as Ere4iavlens Kai 'IKVrtXarrtr ), a See also:fish book, a See also:fruit book (both skits on the Byzantine See also:court and See also:official circles). To these must be added the Greek laws of Jerusalem and of See also:Cyprus of the 12th and 13th centuries, chronicles, &c. In spite of many individual successes, the literature written in the vulgar tongue succumbed, in the See also:race for existence, to its See also:elder See also:sister, the literature written in classical and polished Greek. This was mainly due to the continuous employment of the ancient language in the See also:state, the schools and the church. The importance of Byzantine culture and literature in the history of the world is beyond dispute. The Christians of the East Roman empire guarded for more than a thousand Generat years the intellectual heritage of antiquity against the See also:steam-violent onslaught of the barbarians. They also called See also:cane of into life a peculiar medieval culture and literature. Byzaattne literature. They communicated the treasures of the old pagan as well as of their own Christian literature to neighbouring nations; first to the Syrians, then to the See also:Copts, the Armenians, the Georgians; later, to the Arabians, the Bulgarians, the Serbs and the Russians. Through their teaching they created a new East See also:European culture, embodied above all in the See also:Russian empire, which, on its religious side, is included in the Orthodox Eastern Church, and from the point of view of See also:nationality touches the two extremes of Greek and Slay. Finally the learned men of the dying Byzantine empire, fleeing from the barbarism of the See also:Turks, transplanted the treasures of old Hellenic See also:wisdom to the West, and thereby fertilized the Western peoples with See also:rich germs of culture. 2. Language: See also:Grammar: A. N. Jannaris (Giannaris), An Historical Greek Grammar (1897); A. Dieterich, " Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der griechischen Sprache von der hellenistischen Zeit bis zum loten Jahrhundert," in Byzant. Archiv, i. (1898). Glossary: See also:Ducange, Glossarium ad scriptores mediae et infimae Graecitatis (1688), in which particular attention is paid to the " vulgar " language; E. A. See also:Sophocles, Greek See also:Lexicon of the Roman and Byzantine Periods (3rd ed., 1888). 3. See also:Theology: Chief work, A. Ehrhard in See also:Krumbacher's Geschichte der byz. Lit. pp. 1-218. For the ancient period, cf. the works on Greek patrology (under See also:article FAlimas OF THE CHURCH). Collective edition of the Fathers (down to the 15th century) ; Patrologia, series Graeca (ed. by See also:Migne, 161 vols., 1857-1866). Church poetry: A collection of Greek Church hymns was published by W. Christ and M. Paranikas, entitled Anthologia Graeca carminum Christianorum (1871). Many unedited texts, particularly the songs of Romanos, were published by See also:Cardinal J. B. Pitra, under the See also:title Analecta sacra spicilegio Solesmensi parata (1876). A complete edition of the hymns is edited by K. Krumbacher.
4. Historical literature: A collective edition of the Byzantine historians and chroniclers was begun under See also: Wagner, Medieval Greek Texts (187o), Carmina Graeca Medii Aevi (1874), Trois Poemes grecs du mpyen age (1881) ; E. Legrand, Collection de monuments pour servir a l'etude de la langue neo-helienique (in 26 parts, 1869-1875), Bibliothique grecque vulgaire (in 8 vols., 188o-1896). (K. KR.) After the See also:capture of Constantinople, the destruction of Greek See also:national life and the almost See also:total effacement of Greek See also:civilization naturally involved a more or less complete cessation of Greek literary production in the regions subjected to the rule of a barbarous conqueror. Learned Greeks found a See also:refuge away from their native See also:land; they spoke the See also:languages of See also:foreign people, and when they wrote books they often used those languages, but in most cases they also wrote in Greek. The fall of Constantinople must not therefore be taken as indicating a break in the continuity of Greek literary history. Nor had that event so decisive an influence as has been supposed on the revival of learning in western See also:Europe. The crusades had already brought the Greeks and Westerns together, and the rule of the See also:Franks at Constantinople and in the See also:Levant had rendered the contact closer. Greeks and Latins had keenly discussed the dogmas which divided the Eastern and Western Churches; some Greeks had adopted the Latin faith or had, endeavoured to reconcile the two communions, some had attained preferment in the Roman Church. Many had become connected by See also:marriage or other ties with the See also:Italian nobles who ruled in the See also:Aegean or the Heptanesos, and circumstances led them to See also:settle in See also:Italy. Of the writers who thus found their way to the West before the taking of Constantinople the most prominent were See also:Leon or Leontios Pilatos, Georgius Gemistus, or Pletho, Manuel and John Chrysoloras, See also:Theodore Gazes, See also:George of Trebizond and Cardinal See also:Bessarion. The See also:Ottoman See also:conquest had reduced the Christian races in the plains to a condition of See also:serfdom, but the spirit of See also:liberty continued to breathe in the mountains, where groups The of desperate men, the Klephts and the Haiduks, See also:Ossa that the footstep of the Turk has never desecrated its valleys; the See also:standard of freedom floats over its springs; there is a Klepht beneath every See also:tree of its forests; an See also:eagle sits on its See also:summit with the See also:head of a See also:warrior in its talons. The dying Klepht bids his companions make him a large and lofty See also:tomb that he may stand therein and load his .See also:musket: " Make a window in the side that the swallows may tell me that See also:spring has come, that the nightingales may sing me the approach of flowery May." The wounded Vervos is addressed by his See also:horse: " Rise, my See also:master, let us go and find our comrades." " My See also:bay horse, I cannot rise; I am dying: dig me a tomb with thy See also:silver-shod hoof; take me in thy See also:teeth and lay me therein. See also:Bear my arms to my companions and this handkerchief to my beloved, that she may see it and lament me." Another type of the popular poetry is presented by the folk-songs of the Aegean islanders and the maritime See also:population of the See also:Asiatic See also:coast. In many of the former the influence of the Frankish conquest is apparent. Traces of the ancient See also:mythology are often to be found in the popular songs. Death is commonly personified by See also:Charon, who struggles with his victim; Charon is sometimes worsted, but as a rule he triumphs in the conflict.
In Crete, which for nearly two centuries after the fall of Constantinople remained under Venetian rule, a school of Greek poetry arose strongly impressed with Italian influences. The language employed is the See also:dialect of the Candiotes, with its large admixture of Venetian words. The first product of this somewhat hybrid literature was Erotocritos, an epic poem in five cantos, which relates the love story of See also:Arete, daughter of See also:Hercules, See also: It is a tragic drama, the See also:scene of which is laid in Egypt. The See also:dialogue is poor, but there are some See also:fine choral interludes, which perhaps are by a different hand. Chortakis, who was brought up at Retimo, lived at the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th centuries. The third Cretan poem worthy of See also:notice is the Shepherdess, a charming and graceful idyll written by See also:Nicolas Drimyticos, a native of Apokorona, early in the 17th century. Other Cretan poets were J. Gregoropoulos and G. Melissinos (1500), who wrote epigrams, and Maroulos (1493), who endeavoured to write Pindaric odes. Among the Greeks who were prominent in spreading a know-ledge of Greek in Europe after the fall of Constantinople were John Argyropulos, Demetrius Chalcondyles, See also:Con- stantine and John See also:Lascaris and See also:Marcus See also:Musurus, a Literary acttvlty Cretan. These men wrote in the accepted literary after the language; in general, however, they were rather fail of employed about literature than engaged in producing Constanit. They taught Greek; several of them wrote Greek See also:troop/e. grammars; they transcribed and edited Greek classical writers, and they collected manuscripts. Their stores enriched the newly founded See also:libraries of St See also:Mark at See also:Venice, of the See also:Escorial, of the Vatican and of the National Library in Paris. But none of them accomplished much in literature strictly so called. The question which most deeply interested them was that of the See also:rival merits of the Platonic and Aristotelian philosophies, over which a controversy of extraordinary bitterness See also:broke out towards the close of the 15th century. The dispute was in reality theological rather than philosophical; the cause of Plato was championed by the See also:advocates of a See also:union between the Eastern and Western Churches, that of Aristotle was upheld by the opposing party, and all the fury of the old Byzantine dogmatic controversies was revived. The patriarch, George Kurtesios or Gennadius, whom Mahommed II. had appointed after the capture of K e po etry. try. maintained. the struggle against See also:alien tyranny. The po adventurous and romantic life of these champions of freedom, spent amid the noblest solitudes of nature and often tinged with the deepest tragedy, naturally produced a poetry of its own, fresh, spontaneous and entirely indigenous. The Klephtic See also:ballads, all anonymous and composed in the language of the people, are unquestionably the best and most genuine Greek poetry of this epoch. They breathe the aroma of the forests and mountains; like the early rhapsodies of antiquity, which peopled nature with a thousand forms, they lend a See also:voice to the trees, the rocks, the See also:rivers and to the mountains themselves, which sing the prowess of the Klepht, bewail his death and comfort his disconsolate wife or See also:mother. See also:Olympia boasts to Cretan poets. Constantinople, wrote a See also:treatise in favour of Aristotle and ex- of Greek orthodoxy against Latin See also:heresy. Theotokes, famous as a preacher, wrote, besides theological and controversial works, treatises on mathematics, geography and physics. Bulgares was a most prolific author; he wrote numerous translations and works on theology, See also:archaeology, philosophy, mathematics, physics and astronomy; he translated the Aeneid and Georgics of See also:Virgil into Homeric verse at the request of See also:Catherine II. His writings exercised a considerable influence over his contemporaries. The poets of the earlier period of the Greek revival were Constantinos See also:Rhigas (q.v.), the See also:Alcman of the revolutionary movement, whose songs fired the spirit of his See also:fellow- countrymen; See also:Christopoulos (1772—r847), a Phanariote, pfhe Qreoets of ek who wrote some charming See also:Anacreontics, and Jacobos revival. Rizos Neroulos (1778—1850), also a Phanariote, author of tragedies, comedies and lyrics, and of a work in French on modern Greek literature. They are followed in the epoch of Greek See also:independence by the See also:brothers Panagiotes and Alexander Soutzos (1800—1868 and 1803—1863) and Alexander Rhizos Rhangabes (See also:Rhankaves, 1810—1892), all three See also:Phanariotes. Both Soutzos had a rich command of musical language, were highly ideal in their conceptions, strongly patriotic and possessed an ardent love of liberty. Both imitated to some extent See also:Byron, Lamartine and See also:Beranger; they tried various forms of poetry, but the See also:genius of Panagiotes was essentially lyrical, that of Alexander satirical. The other great poet of the Greek revival, Alexander Rizos Rhangabe, was a writer with a fine poetic feeling, exquisite diction and singular beauty and purity of thought and sentiment. Besides numerous odes, hymns, ballads, narrative poems, tragedies and comedies, he wrote several prose works, including a history of ancient Greece, a history of modern Greek literature, several novels and works on ancient art and archaeology. Among the numerous dramatic works of this time may be mentioned the Mapia AoEt rarpi of Demetrios Bernardakes, a Cretan, the scene of which is laid in the Morea at the time of the crusades. In prose composition, as in poetry, the national revival was marked by an abundant output. Among the historians the greatest is Spiridon Trikoupis, whose History of the prose Revolution is a monumental work. It is distinguished writers by beauty of style, clearness of exposition and an o al. impartiality which is all the more remarkable as the author played a leading part in the events which he narrates. Almost all the chiefs of the revolutionary movement left their See also:memoirs; even Kolokotrones, who was illiterate, dictated his recollections. John See also:Philemon, of Constantinople, wrote a history of the revolution in six volumes. He was an ardent See also:partisan of See also:Russia, and as such was opposed to Trikoupis, who was attached to the See also:English party. K. Paparrhegopoulos's History of the Greek Nation is especially valuable in regard to the later periods; in regard to the earlier he largely follows See also:Gibbon and See also:Grote. With him may be mentioned Moustoxides of See also:Corfu, who wrote on Greek history and literature; Sakellarios, who dealt with the topography and history of Cyprus; N. Dragoumes, whose historical memoirs treat of the period which followed the revolution; K. Assopios, who wrote on Greek literature and history. In theology Oeconomos fills the place occupied by Miniates in the 17th century as a great preacher. Kontogones is well known by his History of Patristic Literature of the First Three Centuries and his Ecclesiastical History, and Philotheos Bryennios, bishop of See also:Serres, by his elaborate edition of Clemens See also:Romanus. Kastorches wrote well on Latin literature. Great literary activity in the domains of law, political See also:economy, mathematics, the See also:physical sciences and archaeology displayed itself in the See also:generation after the See also:establishment of the Greek See also:kingdom. But the writer who at the time of the national revival not only exercised the greatest influence over his contemporaries but even to a large extent shaped the future course See also:corals. of Greek literature was Adamantios Coraes (Korais) of See also:Chios. This remarkable See also:man, who devoted his life to philological studies, was at the same time an ardent patriot, and in the prolegomena to his numerous editions of the classical communicated Gemistus Pletho, the See also:principal writer among the Platonists. On the other hand, George of Trebizond, who attacked Pletho with unmeasured virulence, was compelled to resign his See also:post of secretary to See also:Pope See also:Nicholas V. and was imprisoned by Pope See also:Paul I. Scholarship was not wholly See also:extinct in Greece or among the Greeks for a considerable time after the See also:Turkish conquest. See also:Arsenius, who succeeded Musurus as bishop of Monemvasia (1510), wrote commentaries on See also:Aristophanes and Euripides; his father, Apostoles, made a collection of Greek proverbs. See also:Aemilius Portos, a Cretan, and Leo Allatios (1600-1650) of Chios edited a number of works of the classical and later periods with commentaries and translations; Allatios also wrote Greek verses showing skill and cleverness. Constantine Rhodokanakes, physician to See also: Most of these works are written in the literary language, the study of which was kept alive by the patriarchate and the schools which it maintained at Constantinople and elsewhere. Various theological and philosophical works, grammars and dictionaries were written during this period, but elegant literature practically disappears.' A literary revival followed in the 18th century, the precursor of the national uprising which resulted in the independence of Greece. The efforts of the great Phanariote families The at Constantinople, the educational zeal of the higher literary i Greek See also:clergy and the munificence of wealthy Greeks in the provinces, chiefly merchants who had acquired fortunes by See also:commerce, combined to promote the spread of education among a people always eager for instruction. The Turks, indifferent to educational matters, failed to discern the significance of the movement. Schools were established in every important Greek See also:town, and school-books and translations from Western languages issued from the presses of Venice, Triest, See also:Vienna and other cities where the Greeks possessed colonies. See also:Young men completed their studies in the Western See also:universities and returned to the East as the missionaries of modern civilization. For the greater part of the 18th century the literature was mainly theological. Notable theological writers of this epoch were See also:Elias Miniates, an elegant preacher, whose sermons are written in the popular language, and Meletios of See also:Iannina, metropolitan of Athens, whose principal works were an ecclesiastical history, written in ancient Greek, and a descriptive geography of Greece in the modern language, composed, like the work of See also:Pausanias, after a series of See also:tours. The works of two distinguished prelates, both natives of Corfu and both ardent partisans of Russia, Nikephoros Theotokes (1731 ?—1800) and Eugenios Bulgares (1715—1806), mark the beginning of the national and literary See also:renaissance. They wrote much in See also:defence ' The patriarch Cyrillos Lucares (1572-1638), who had studied for a time in England and whose sympathies with Protestantism made him many enemies, established a Greek See also:printing-See also:press at Constantinople, from which he had the temerity to issue a work condemning the faith of See also:Mahomet; he was denounced to the Turks by the See also:Jesuits, and his printing-press was suppressed. writers, written in Greek or French, he strove to awake the interest of his countrymen in the past glories of their race or administered to them See also:sage counsels, at the same time addressing ardent appeals to civilized Europe on their behalf. The great importance of Coraes, however, lies in the fact that he was practically the founder of the modern literary language. In contemporary Greek literature two distinct forms of the modern language See also:present themselves—the vernacular (r) The KaBoµtXov . P i) and the purified (i- KaOapevovua). modern The former is the oral language, spoken by the whole literary Greek world, with See also:local See also:dialectic variations; the language. latter is based on the Greek of the Hellenistic writers, modified, but not essentially altered, in successive ages by the popular speech. At the time of the See also:War of Independence the See also:enthusiasm of the Greeks and the Philhellenes was fired by the memory of an illustrious past, and at its close a classical reaction followed: the ancient nomenclature was introduced in every department of the new state, towns and districts received their former names, and See also:children were christened after Greek heroes and philosophers instead of the Christian saints. In the literary revival which attended the national movement, two schools of writers made their appearance—the purists, who, rejecting the spoken See also:idiom as degenerate and corrupt, aimed at the restoration of the classical language, and the vulgarists, who regarded the vernacular or " Romaic " as the genuine and legitimate representative of the ancient tongue. A controversy which had existed in former times was thus revived, with the result that a state of confusion still prevails in the national literature. The classical See also:scholar who is as yet unacquainted with modern Greek will find, in the pages of an See also:ordinary periodical or newspaper, specimens of the conventional literary language. which he can read with ease side by side with poems or even prose in the vernacular which he will be altogether unable to interpret. The vernacular ororal language is never taught, but is univers- ally spoken. It has been evolved from the ancient language by a natural and regular See also:process, similar to that which Reforms has produced the See also:Romance languages from the Latin, of Coraes or the Russian, Bulgarian and Servian from the . old See also:Slavonic. It has See also:developed on parallel lines with the modern European languages, and in obedience to the same laws; like them, it might have grown into a literary language had any great writers arisen in the middle ages to do for it what See also:Dante and his successors of the trecento did for Italian. But the effort to adapt it to the requirements of modern literature could hardly prove successful. In the first place, the national sentiment of the Greeks prompts them to imitate the classical writers, and so far as possible to appropriate their diction. The beauty and dignity of the ancient tongue possesses such an attraction for cultivated writers that they are led insensibly to adopt its forms and See also:borrow from its See also:wealth of phrase and idiom. In the next place, a certain literary tradition and usage has already been formed which cannot easily be broken down. For more than half a century the generally accepted written language, half modern half ancient, has been in use in the schools, the university, the See also:parliament, the state departments and the See also:pulpit, and its influence upon the speech of the more educated classes is already noticeable. It largely owes its present form—though a fixed standard is still lacking—to the influence and teaching of Coraes. As in the time of the decadence a Kolvii S1aXeKros stood midway between the classical language and the popular speech, so at the beginning of the 19th century there existed a See also:common literary dialect, largely influenced by the vernacular, but retaining the characteristics of the old Hellenistic, from which it was derived by an unbroken literary tradition. This written language Coraes took as the basis of his reforms, purging it of foreign elements, preserving its classical remnants and enlarging its vocabulary with words borrowed from the ancient lexicon or, in case of need, invented in accordance with a fixed principle. He thus adopted a middle course, discountenancing alike the pedantry of the purists and the over-confident optimism of the vulgarists, who found in the uncouth popularspeech all the material for a langue savante. The language which he thus endeavoured to shape and reconstruct is, of course, conventional and artificial. In course of time it will probably tend to approach the vernacular, while the latter will gradually be modified by the spread of education. The spoken and written languages, however, will always be separated by a wide See also:interval. Many of the best poets of modern Greece have written in the vernacular, which is best adapted for the natural and spontaneous expression of the feelings. Dionysios Solomos (1798– poetical 1857), the greatest of them all, employed the dialect writers of the Ionian Islands. Of his lyrics, which are full of in the poetic See also:fire and See also:inspiration, the most celebrated is his verna-" See also:Ode to Liberty." Other poets, of what may be cular. described as the Ionic school, such as Andreas Kalvos (1796–1869), See also:Julius Typaldos (1814–1883), John Zampelios (1787–1856), and Gerasimos Markoras (b. 1826), followed his example in using the Heptanesian dialect. On the other hand, Georgios Terzetes (1806-1874), Aristotle Valaorites (1824–1879) and Gerasimos Mavrogiannes, though natives of the Ionian Islands, adopted in their lyrics the language of the Klephtic ballads—in other words, the vernacular of the See also:Pindus range and the mountainous See also:district of See also:Epirus. This dialect had at least the See also:advantage of being generally current throughout the mainland, while it derived distinction from the heroic exploits of the champions of Greek liberty. The poems of Valaorites, which are characterized by vivid See also:imagination and See also:grace of style, have made a deep impression on the nation. Other poets who largely employed the Epirotic dialect and See also:drew their inspiration from the Klephtic songs were John Vilaras (1771–1823), George Zalokostas (1805–1857) in his lyric pieces, and Theodore Aphentoules, a Cretan (d. 1893). With the poems of this group may be classed those of Demetrius Bikelas (b. 1835). The popular language has been generally adopted by the younger generation of poets, among whom may be mentioned See also:Aristomenes Probelegios (b. 1850), George Bizyenos (1853–1896), George Drosines, Kostes See also:Palamas (b. 1859), John Polemes, Argyres Ephthaliotes, and See also:Jacob Polylas (d. 1896). Contemporary with the first-mentioned or Ionic group, there existed at Constantinople a school of poets who wrote in the accepted literary language, and whose writings serve as models for the later group which gathered at Athens pbeticai after the emancipation of Greece. The literary in the traditions founded by Alexander Rizos Rhangabes maven-(r 810–1892) and the brothers Alexander and Panagiotis tonal Soutzos (1803–1863 and 1800–1868), who belonged language. to Phanariot families, were maintained in Athens by Spiridion Basiliades (1843–1874) Angelos Vlachos (b. 1838), John Karasoutzas (1824–1873), Demetrios Paparrhegopoulos (1843–1873), and See also:Achilles Paraschos (b. 1838). The last, a poet of fine feeling, has also employed the popular language. In general the practice of versification in the conventional literary language has declined, though sedulously encouraged by the university of Athens, and fostered by See also:annual poetic competitions with prizes provided by patriotic citizens. Greek lyric poetry during the first half of the century was mainly inspired by the patriotic sentiment aroused by the struggle for independence, but in the present generation it often shows a tendency towards the philosophic and contemplative See also:mood under the influence of Western models. There has been an abundant production of dramatic literature in See also:recent years. In See also:succession to Alexander Rhangabes, John Zampelios and the two Soutzos, who belong to the past generation, Kleon Rhangabes, Angelos Vlachos, Drama-Demetrios Koromelas, Basiliades and Bernadakes trans. 'are the most prominent among modern dramatic iators and writers. Numerous translations of foreign master- satirists. pieces have appeared, among which the metrical versions of Romeo and Juliet, Othello, King See also:Lear, See also:Hamlet, See also:Macbeth and The See also:Merchant of Venice, by Demetrios Bikelas, deserve mention as examples of artistic excellence. See also:Goethe's See also:Faust has been rendered into verse by Probelegios, and Hamlet, Antony and See also:Cleopatra, See also:Coriolanus and Julius See also:Caesar, into prose by Damiroles. Among recent satirists, George Soures (b. 1853) occupies a unique position. He reviews social and political events in the'PwpT7os, a witty little newspaper written entirely in verse, which is read with delight by all classes of the population. Almost' all the prose writers have employed the literary language. In historical See also:research the Greeks continue to display much activity and erudition, but no great work Recent comparable to Spiridion Trikoupis's History of the prose writers. Revolution has appeared in the present generation. A history of the Greek nation from the earliest times to the present day, by Spiridion Lampros, and a general history of the 19th century by Karolides, have recently been published. The valuable Mvr11.Leia of Sathas, the 7a,eMraL Bvi'avruvi7s LOropias of Spiridion Zampelios and Mavrogiannes's History of the Ionian Islands deserve special mention, as well as the essays of Bikelas, which treat of the Byzantine and modern epochs of Greek history. Some of the last-named were translated into English by the late See also:marquis of See also:Bute. Among the writers on See also:jurisprudence are See also:Peter Paparrhegopoulos, Kalligas, Basileios Oekonomedes and Nikolaos Saripolos. Brailas-Armenes and John Skaltzounes, the latter an opponent of See also:Darwin, have written philosophical works. The Ecclesiastical History of See also:Diomedes Kyriakos and the Theological Treatises of Archbishop Latas should be noted. The best-known writers of philological works are Constantine Kontos, a strong See also:advocate of literary purism, George Hatzidakes, Theodore Papademetrakopoulos and John Psichari; in archaeology, See also:Stephen Koumanoudes, Panagiotes Kavvadias and Christos Tsountas have won a recognized position among scholars. John Svoronos is a high authority on See also:numismatics. The works of John Hatzidakes on mathematics, Anast. Christomanos on See also:chemistry, and Demetrios Aeginetes on astronomy are well known. The earlier works of fiction, written in the period succeeding the emancipation of Greece, were much affected by foreign Fiction. influence. Modern Greece has not produced any great novelist. The Kp17rLKOi yaµoL of Spiridion Zampelios, the scene of which is laid in Crete, and the Thanos Blechas of Kalligas are interesting, the former for accuracy of historical detail, the latter as a picture of See also:peasant life in the mountains of Greece. Original novel writing has not been much cultivated, but translations of foreign romances abound. In later times the short story has come into See also:vogue through the example of D. Bikelas, whose tales have acquired great popularity; one of them, Loukis Laras, has been translated into many languages. The example of Bikelas has been followed by Drosines Karkavitzas, Ephthaliotis, Xenopoulos and many others. The most distinguished of the writers who adhere to the vernacular in prose is John Psichari, See also:professor of the Ecole See also:des Sautes Etudes in Paris. He is the recognized See also:leader of the vulgarists. Among the best known of his works are To raEel6i acv, a narrative of a journey in Greek lands, Tovapo Toil Fiavvipr7, 'H ZoOXea, and o Miyos. The tales of Karkavitzas and Ephthaliotis are also in the vernacular. Among the younger of M. Psichari's followers is M. Palli, who has recently published a See also:translation of the Iliad. Owing to the limited resources of the popular language, the writers of this school are sometimes compelled to employ See also:strange and little-known words borrowed from the various dialects. The vernacular has never been adopted by writers on scientific subjects, owing to its inherent unsuitability and the incongruity arising from the introduction of technical terms derived from the ancient language. Notwithstanding the'zeal of its adherents, it seems unlikely to maintain its place in literature outside the domain of poetry; nor can any other result be expected, unless its advocates succeed .'n reforming the system of public instruction in Greece. Many See also:periodicals are published at Athens, among which may be mentioned the See also:Athena, edited by Constantine Kontos, the Ethnike Agoge, a continuation of the old See also:Hestia, the See also:Harmonia and the ALar1avis rmv See also:rat&wv, an educational See also:review. The Parnassos, the Archaeological Society and otherlearned bodies issue annual or quarterly reports. The Greek See also:journals are both numerous and widely read. They contain much See also:clever writing, which is often marred by inac- curacy and a deficient sense of responsibility. Their tendency to exaggerated patriotic sentiment sometimes Journa/s. /ca/s and See also:borders on the ludicrous. For many years the Nea Hemera of See also:Trieste exerted a considerable influence over the Greek world, owing to the able political reviews of its editor, Anastasios Byzantios (d. 1898), a publicist of remarkable insight and judgment. AuTHoRITIEs.—Constantine Sathas,NeoeXanvuat ckaoaoyla (Athens, 1868) ; D. Bikelas, Hepi veoe X vi,d c (I)LAoXoylar &laptop(See also:London, 1871), reprinted in ALaMtees Kal avagvngeie(Athens, 1893) ; J. S. See also:Blackie, Horae Hellenicae (London, 1874) ; R. See also:Nicolai, Geschichte der neugriechischen Literatur (Leipzig, 1876) ; A. R. Rhangabe, Histoire litteraire de la Grece moderne (Paris, 1877) ; C. Gidel, Etudes sur la litterature grecque moderne (Paris, 1878) ; E. Legrand, Bibliotheque grecque vulgaire (vol. i., Paris, 188o) ; J. Lamber, Poetes grecs contemporains (Paris, 1881) ; Kontos, PXwooLKai sraparfprtgecs (Athens, 1882); Rhangabe and See also:Sanders, Geschichte der neugriechischen Literatur von ihren Anfangen bis auf See also:die neueste Zeit (Leipzig,1885); J. Psichari, Essais de grammaire historique neo-grecque (2 vols., Paris, 1886 and 1889) ; Etudes de philologie neo-grecque (Paris, 1892); F. See also:Blass, Die Aussprache des Griechischen (3rd ed., See also:Berlin, 1888); Papademetrakopoulos, Baoavos ETX vLK;tr 7rpo4opas (Athens. 1889) ; M. Konstantinides, Neo-hellenica (Dialogues in Modern Greek, with Appendix on the Cypriot Dialect) (London, 1892); Rhoades, Ta EihwXa. P?wogucr} µeXerg (Athens, 1893) ; Polites, MEXcrai TEpl Tor, Xov Kal rats yawgoi 'EXXrtvLKO"v aaou (2 vols., Athens, 1899). For the Klephtic ballads and folk-songs: C. See also:Fauriel, Chants populaires de la Grece moderne (Paris, 1824, 1826) ; See also:Passow, Popularia carmina Graeciae recentioris (Leipzig, 186o) ; von See also:Hahn, Griechische and albanesische Marchen (Leipzig, 1864) ; Te¢aplKris, ALavorpayovSa (2nd ed., Athens, 1868) ; E. Legrand, Recueil de chansons populaires grecques (Paris, 1874) ; Recueil de conies populaires grecs (Paris, 1881); Paul de See also:Lagarde, Neugriechisches aus Kleinasien (See also:Gottingen, 1886) ; A. Jannaris, "Ao,aara Kpgruca. (Kreta's Volkslieder) (Leipzig, 1876) ; A. Sakellariou, Ta Kvirpcaxa (Athens, 1891) ; Zwypack2os 'Ayeov, published by the 'EXTx;vixOr giXoXoyucbs abXXoyos (Constantinople, 1891). Translations: L. See also:Garnett, Greek Folksongs from the Turkish Provinces of Greece (London, 1885) ; E. M. Geldart, See also:Folklore of Modern Greece (London, 1884). Lexicons: A. N. Jannaris, A Concise See also:Dictionary of the English and Modern Greek Languages (English-Greek) (London, 1895) ; Byzantios (Skarlatos D.), AeELKOv T'7)5 'EXXI/vt,d 7Xwoo11s (Athens, 1895); A. Sakellario, Ae iaav ri g'EXknvLK75s yXc rcr s (5th ed., Athens, 1898); S. Koumanoudes, Euvaywyr} v&ev X Zewv (Athens, 1900). Grammars: Mitsotakes, Praktische Grammatik der neugriechischen Schrift- and Umgangssprache (See also:Stuttgart, 1891); M. See also:Gardner, A Practical Modern Greek Grammar (London, 1892); G. N. Hatzidakes, Einleitung in die neugriechische Grammatik (Leipzig, 1892); E. See also:Vincent and T. G. See also:Dickson, Handbook to Modern Greek (London, 1893) ; A. Thumb, Handbuch der neugriechischen Volkssprache (See also:Strassburg, 1895); C. Wied, Die Kunst der neugriechischen Volkssprache durch Selbstunterricht schnell and leicht zu lernen (2nd ed., undated, Vienna) ; A. N. Jannaris, Historical Greek Grammar (London, 1897). (J. D. 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