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SAINTSBURY, GEORGE EDWARD BATEMAN (18...
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See also:SAINTSBURY, See also:GEORGE See also:EDWARD See also:BATEMAN (1845- ) , See also:English See also:man of letters, was See also:born at See also:Southampton on the 23rd of See also:October 1845. He was educated at See also: (1906) 9765. It is not enclosed by walls, and with its new houses, straight wide streets and numerous gardens forms a contrast to its See also:neighbour. See also:North of the town there is a wet-See also:dock, 27 acres in extent, forming See also:part of the See also:harbour of St Malo. The creek on which it opens is dry at See also:low See also:water, but at high water is 30 to 40 ft. deep. The dock is used chiefly by See also:coasting and fishing vessels, a See also:fleet starting annually for the See also:Newfoundland See also:cod-See also:fisheries. Two other ports on the Rance, south-See also:west of the town at the See also:foot of the See also:tower of Solidor, are of small importance. This stronghold, erected towards the dose of the 14th century by See also: Aleth was a See also:bulwark of See also:Druidism in those regions and was not Christianized till the 6th century, when St Malo became its first bishop. On the removal of the bishopric to St Malo Aleth declined and was almost destroyed by St See also: There is See also:trade in the agricultural products of the Chalosse, especially geese.
See also:SAINT-See also:SIMON, See also:CLAUDE DE ROUVROY, Due DE (1607-1693), French courtier, was born in See also:August 1607, being the second son of Louis de Rouvroi, seigneur du Plessis (d. 1643), who had been a warm supporter of See also: By his first wife, Diane de Budos de Portes, a relative of Conde, whom he married in 1644 and who died in 167o, he had three daughters. By his second wife, See also:Charlotte de 1'Aubespine, whom he married in 1672, he had a son Louis, the " author of the See also:memoirs " (see below). SAINT-SIMON, CLAUDE See also:HENRI DE ROUVROY, See also:COMTE DE (1760-1825), the founder of French See also:socialism, was born in Paris on the 17th of October 176o. He belonged to a younger See also:branch of the See also:family of the duc de Saint-Simon (above). His See also:education was directed by D'See also:Alembert. At the See also:age of nineteen he assisted the See also:American colonies in their revolt against See also:Britain. From his youth Saint-Simon See also:felt the promptings of an eager ambition. His See also:valet had orders to awake him every See also:morning with the words, " Remember, See also:monsieur le comte, that you have great things to do." Among his See also:early schemes was one to unite the See also:Atlantic and the Pacific by a See also:canal, and another to construct a canal from See also:Madrid to the See also:sea. Although he was imprisoned in the Luxembourg during the Terror, he took no part of any importance in the Revolution, but profited by it to amass a little See also:fortune by See also:land See also:speculation—not on any selfish See also:account, however, as he said, but to facilitate his future projects. Accordingly, when he was nearly See also:forty years of age he went through a varied course of study and experiment, in See also:order to enlarge and clarify his view of things. One of these experiments was an unhappy See also:marriage—undertaken merely that he might have a See also:salon—which, after a See also:year's duration, was dissolved by mutual consent. The result of his experiments was that he found himself completely impoverished, and lived in penury for the See also:remainder of his See also:life. The first of his numerous writings, Lettres d'un habitant de Geneve, appeared in 18o2; but his early writings were mostly scientific and See also:political. In 1817 he began in a See also:treatise entitled L'Industrie to propound his socialistic views, which he further See also:developed in L'Organisateur (1810), a periodical on which Augustin See also:Thierry and Auguste Comte collaborated. The first number caused a sensation, but it brought few converts. In 1821 appeared Du systeme industriel, and in 1823-1824 Catechisme des industriels. The last and most important expression of his views is the Nouveau Christianisme (1825), which he left unfinished. For many years before his death in 1825 (at Paris on the 10th of May), Saint-Simon had been reduced to the greatest straits. He was obliged to accept a laborious See also:post, working nine See also:hours a day for 40 a year, to live on the generosity of a former valet, and finally to solicit a small See also:pension from his family. In 1823 he attempted See also:suicide in despair. It was not till very See also:late in his career that he attached to himself a few ardent disciples. As a thinker Saint-Simon was entirely deficient in See also:system, clearness and consecutive strength. But his great See also:influence on modern thought is undeniable, both as the historic founder of French socialism and as suggesting much of what was after-wards elaborated into Comtism. Apart from the details of his socialistic teaching, which are vague and unsystematic, we find that the ideas of Saint-Simon as to the reconstruction of society are very See also:simple. His opinions were conditioned by the French Revolution and by the feudal and military system still prevalent in France. In opposition to the destructive liberalism of the Revolution he insisted on the See also:necessity of a new and See also:positive reorganization of society. So far was he from advocating fresh social revolt that he appealed to Louis XVIII. to inaugurate the new order of things. In opposition, however, to the feudal and military system, the former aspect of which had been strengthened by the restoration, he advocated an arrangement by which the See also:industrial chiefs should See also:control society. In See also:place of the See also:medieval church the spiritual direction of society should fall to the men of See also:science. What Saint-Simon desired, therefore, was an industrialist See also:state directed by modern science in which universal association should suppress See also:war. In short, the men who are fitted to organize society for productive labour are entitled to See also:bear See also:rule in it. The social aim is to produce things useful to life. The contrast between labour and capital so much emphasized by later socialism is not present to Saint-Simon, but it is assumed that the industrial chiefs, to whom the control of See also:production is to be committed, shall rule in the See also:interest of society. Later on the cause of the poor receives greater See also:attention, till in his greatest work, The New See also:Christianity, it takes the See also:form of a See also:religion. It was this development of his teaching that occasioned his final See also:quarrel with Comte. Previous to the publication of the Nouveau Christianisme, Saint-Simon had not concerned himself with See also:theology. Here he starts from a belief in See also:God, and his See also:object in the treatise is to reduce Christianity to its simple and essential elements. He does this by clearing it of the dogmas and other excrescences and defects which have gathered See also:round the See also:Catholic and See also:Protestant forms of it. He propounds as the comprehensive See also:formula of the new Christianity this See also:precept—" The whole of society ought to strive towards the amelioration of the moral and See also:physical existence of the poorest class; society ought to organize itself in the way best adapted for attaining this end." This principle became the watchword of the entire school of Saint-Simon. During his lifetime the views of Saint-Simon had very little influence; and he left only a few devoted disciples, who continued to See also:advocate the doctrines of their master, whom they revered as a See also:prophet. Of these the most important were Olinde Rodrigues, the favoured See also:disciple of Saint-Simon, and See also:Barthelemy Prosper See also:Enfantin (q.v.), who together had received Saint-Simon's last instructions. Their first step was to establish a See also:journal, Le Producteur, but it was discontinued in 1826. The See also:sect, however, had begun to grow, and before the end of 1828, had meetings not only in Paris but in many provincial towns. An important departure was made in 1828 by Amand See also:Bazard, who gave a " See also:complete exposition of the Saint-Simonian faith" in a See also:long course of lectures at Paris, which were well attended. His Exposition de la See also:doctrine de St Simon (2 vols., 1828-1830), which is by far the best account of it, won more adherents. The second volume was chiefly by Enfantin, who along with Bazard stood at the See also:head of the society, but who was See also:superior in See also:meta-physical See also:power, and was prone to push his deductions to extremities. The revolution of See also:July (183o) brought a new freedom to the socialist reformers. A See also:proclamation was issued demanding the community of goods, the abolition of the right of See also:inheritance, and the enfranchisement of See also:women. Early next year the school obtained See also:possession of the Globe through See also:Pierre See also:Leroux (q.v.), who had joined the school, which now numbered some of the ablest and most promising See also:young men of France, many of the pupils of the Ecole Polytechnique having caught its See also:enthusiasm. The members formed themselves into an association arranged in three grades, and constituting a society or family, which lived out of a See also:common See also:purse in the See also:Rue Monsigny. Before long, however, dissensions began to arise in the sect. Bazard, a man of logical and more solid temperament, could no longer work in See also:harmony with' Enfantin, who desired to establish an arrogant and fantastic See also:sacerdotalism with lax notions as to marriage and the relation of the sexes. After a See also:time Bazard seceded and many of the strongest supporters of the school followed his example. A series of extravagant entertainments given by the society during the See also:winter of 1832 reduced its See also:financial resources and greatly discredited it in See also:character. They finally removed to Menilmontant, to a See also:property of Enfantin, where they lived in a communistic society, distinguished by a See also:peculiar See also:dress. Shortly after the chiefs were tried and condemned for proceedings prejudicial to the social order; and the sect was entirely broken up (1832). Many of its members became famous as See also:engineers, economists, and men of business. In the school of Saint-Simon we find a great advance on the vague and confused views of the master. In the See also:philosophy of history they recognize epochs of two kinds, the critical or negative and the organic or constructive. The former, in which philosophy is the dominating force, is characterized by war, egotism and anarchy; the latter, which is controlled by religion, is marked by the spirit of obedience, devotion, association. The two See also:spirits of antagonism and association are the two great social principles, and on the degree of prevalence of the two depends the character of an See also:epoch. The spirit of association, however, tends more and more to prevail over its opponent, extending from the family to the city, from the city to the nation, and from the nation to the federation. This principleof association is to be the keynote of the social development of the future. Under the present system the industrial See also:chief exploits the See also:proletariat, the members of which, though nominally See also:free," must accept his terms under See also:pain of See also:starvation. The only remedy for this is the abolition of the See also:law of inheritance, and the See also:union of all the See also:instruments of labour in a social fund, which shall be exploited by association. Society thus becomes See also:sole proprietor, entrusting to social See also:groups and social functionaries the management of the various properties. The right of See also:succession is transferred from the family to the state. The school of Saint-Simon insists strongly on the claims of merit; they advocate a social See also:hierarchy in which each man shall be placed according to his capacity and rewarded according to his works. This is, indeed, a most See also:special and pronounced feature of the Saint-Simon socialism, whose theory of See also:government is a See also:kind of spiritual or scientific See also:autocracy, degenerating into the fantastic sacerdotalism of Enfantin. With regard to the family and the relation of the sexes the school of Saint-Simon advocated the complete emancipation of woman and her entire equality with man. The " social individual " is man and woman, who are associated in the exercise of the triple See also:function of religion, the state and the family. In its See also:official declarations the school maintained the sanctity of the See also:Christian law of marriage. Connected with these doctrines was their famous theory of the rehabilitation of the flesh," deduced from the philosophic theory of the school, which was a See also:species of See also:Pantheism, though they repudiated the name. On this theory they rejected the See also:dualism so much emphasized by Catholic Christianity in its penances and mortifications, and held that the See also:body should be restored to its due place of See also:honour. It is a vague principle, of which the ethical character depends on the See also:interpretation; and it was variously interpreted in the school of Saint-Simon. It was certainly immoral as held by Enfantin, by whom it was developed into a kind of sensual See also:mysticism, a system of free love with a religious See also:sanction. An excellent edition of the works of Saint-Simon and Enfantin was published by the survivors of the sect (47 vols., Paris, 1865-'878). See, in addition to the works cited above, L. See also:Reybaud, Etudes sur See also:les reformateurs contemporains (7th edition, Paris, 1864); See also:Paul See also:Janet, Saint-Simon et le Saint-Simonisme (Paris, 1878); A. J. See also:Booth, Saint-Simon and Saint-Simonism (London, 1871); Georges Weill, See also:Uri Precurseur du socialisme, Saint-Simon et son oeuvre (Paris, 1894), and a history of the Ecole Saint-Simonienne, by the same author (1896) ; G. See also:Dumas, Psychologie de deux messies positivistes St Simon et Comte (1905); E. See also:Levasseur's Etudes sociales sous la Restauration, contains a good See also:section on Saint-Simon. (T. K.; J. T. S.*) SAINT-SIMON, LOUIS DE ROUVROY, Duc DE (1675-1755), French soldier, diplomatist and writer of memoirs, was born at Versailles on the 16th of See also:January 1675. The See also:peerage granted to his See also:father, Claude de St Simon (q.v.), is the central fact in his history. The French peerage under the old regime was a very peculiar thing, difficult to comprehend at all, but quite certain to be miscomprehended if any See also:analogy of the English.peerage is imported into the See also:consideration. No two things could be more different in France than ennobling a man and making him a peer. No one was made a peer who was not ennobled, but men of the noblest See also:blood in France and representing their houses might not be, and in most cases were not, peers. Derived at least traditionally and imaginatively from the douze pairs of See also:Charlemagne, the peers were supposed to represent the chosen of the noblesse, and gradflally, in an indefinite and constantly disputed See also:fashion, became associated with the See also:parlement of Paris as a quasi-legislative (or at least law-registering) and directly judicial body. But the peerage was further complicated by the fact that not persons but the holders of certain fiefs were made peers. Strictly speaking, neither Saint-Simon nor any one else in the same See also:case was made a peer, but his See also:estate was raised to the See also:rank of a duche- pairie or a comte pairie as the case might be. Still the peers were in a way a standing See also:committee representative of the entire body of nobles, and it was Saint-Simon's lifelong ideal, and at times his practical effort to convert them into a sort of great See also:council of the nation. His See also:mother, Charlotte de l'Aubespine, belonged to a family not of the See also:oldest See also:nobility but one which had been distinguished in the public service at least since the time of See also:Francis I. Her son Louis was well educated, to a great extent by herself, and he hadehad for godfather and godmother Louis XIV. and the See also:queen. After some tuition by the See also:Jesuits (especially by Sanadon, the editor of See also:Horace), he joined the mousquetaires gris in 1692. He was present at the See also:siege of See also:Namur, and the See also:battle of See also:Neerwinden. But it was at this very time that he See also:chose to begin the crusade of his life by instigating, if not bringing, an See also:action on the part of the peers of France against Luxembourg, his victorious See also:general, on a point of See also:precedence. He fought, how-ever, another See also:campaign or two (not under Luxembourg), and in 1695 married Gabrielle de See also:Durfort, daughter of the marechal de Lorges, under whom he latterly served. He seems to have regarded her with a respect and See also:affection not very usual between See also:husband and wife at the time; and she sometimes succeeded in modifying his aristocratic ideas. But as he did not receive the promotion he desired he flung up his See also:commission in 1702. Louis took a dislike to him, and it was with difficulty that he was able to keep a footing at court. He was, however, intensely interested in all the transactions of Versailles, and by dint of a most heterogeneous collection of instruments, ranging from See also:dukes to servants, he managed to obtain the extraordinary See also:secret See also:information which he has handed down. His own part appears to have been entirely subordinate. He was appointed See also:ambassador to See also:Rome in 1705, but the See also:appointment was cancelled before he started. At last he attached himself to the duke of See also: He was able,moreover, to combine See also:attachment to the duke of See also:Burgundy with that to the duke of Orleans. Both attachments were no doubt all the more sincere because of his undying hatred to " the bastards," that is to say, the illegitimate sons of Louis XIV. It does not appear that this hatred was founded on moral reasons or on any real fear that these bastards would be intruded into the succession. The true cause of his wrath was that they had precedence of the peers. The death of Louis seemed to give Saint-Simon a See also:chance of realizing his hopes. The duke of Orleans was at once acknowledged See also:regent, and Saint-Simon was of the council of regency. But no steps were taken to carry out his favourite See also:vision of a France ruled by the nobles for its good, and he had little real influence with the regent. He was indeed gratified by the degradation of " the bastards," and in 1721 he was appointed ambassador to See also:Spain to arrange for the marriage (not destined to take place) of Louis XV. and the infanta. His visit was splendid; he received the grandeeship, and, though he also caught the smallpox, he was quite satisfied with the business. After his return he had little to do with public affairs. His own account of the cessation of his intimacy with Orleans and See also:Dubois, the latter of whom had never been his friend, is, like his own account of some other events of his life, obscure and rather suspicious. But there can be little doubt that he was practically ousted by the favourite. He survived for more than See also:thirty years; but little is known of his life. His wife died in 1743, his eldest son a little later; he had other family troubles, and he was loaded with See also:debt. When he died, at Paris on the 2nd of March 1755, he had almost entirely outlived his own See also:generation (among whom he had been one of the youngest) and the prosperity of his See also:house, though not its notoriety. This last was in See also:strange fashion revived by a distant relative born five years after his own death, Claude Henri, comte de Saint-Simon (q.v.).
It will have been observed that the actual events of Saint-Simon's life, long as it was and high as was his position, are neither numerous nor noteworthy. He is, however, an almost unique example of a man who has acquired great literary fame entirely by See also:posthumous publications. He was an indefatigable writer, and he began very early to set down in See also:black and See also: He has been compared to See also:Tacitus, and for once the comparison is just. In the midst of his enormous mass of See also:writing phrases scarcely inferior to the Roman's occur frequently, and here and there are passages of sustained description equal, for intense concentration of See also:light and life, to those of Tacitus or of any other historian. As may be expected from the vast extent of his work, it is in the highest degree unequal. But he is at the same time not a writer who can be " sampled " easily, inasmuch' as his most characteristic phrases sometimes occur in the midst of long stretches of quite uninteresting matter. A few critical studies of him, especially those of Sainte-Beuve, are the basis of much, if not most, that has been written about him. Yet no one is so little to be taken at secondhand. Even his most famous passages, such as the account of the death of the dauphin or of the Bed of See also:Justice where his enemy the duke of See also:Maine was degraded, will not give a See also:fair See also:idea of his See also:talent. These are his See also:gallery pieces, his great " See also:machines," as French See also:art See also:slang calls them. Much more noteworthy as well as more frequent are the sudden touches which he gives. The bishops are " cuistres violets "; M. de Caumartin " See also:porte sous son manteau toute la fatuite que M. de Villeroy kale sur son baudrier "; another politician has a " mine de chat facile." In short, the interest of the Memoirs, independent of the large addition of positive knowledge which they make, is one of See also:constant surprise at the novel and adroit use of word and phrase. Some of See also:Macaulay's most brilliant portraits and sketches of incident are adapted and sometimes almost literally translated from Saint-Simon. The first edition of Saint-Simon (some scattered pieces may have been printed before) appeared in 1788. It was a mere selection in three volumes and was much cut down before it was allowed to appear. Next year four more volumes made their See also:appearance, and in 1791 a new edition, still further increased. The whole, or rather not the whole, was printed in 1829–1830 and reprinted some ten years later. The real creator of Saint-Simon, as far as a full and exact See also:text is concerned, was M. See also:Cheruel, whose edition in 20 volumes See also:dates from 1856, and was reissued again revised in 1872. So immense, however, is the mass of Saint-Simon's See also:MSS. that still another recension was given by M. de Boislisle in 1882, with M. Cheruel's assistance, while a newer edition, yet once more revised from the MS., was begun in 1904. It must, however, be admitted that the matter other than the Memoirs is of altogether inferior interest and may be See also:pretty safely neglected by any one but professed antiquarian and historical students. For criticism on Saint-Simon there is nothing better than Sainte-Beuve's two sketches in the 3rd and 15th volumes of the Causeries du lundi. The latter was written to accompany M. Cheruel's first edition. In English by far the most accurate treatment is in a See also:Lothian See also:prize See also:essay by E. Cannan (Oxford and London, 1885). (G. SA.)
ST See also: From the See also:Gabun, the nearest point of the mainland of See also:Africa, St Thomas is distant 166 m., and from Cameroon 297 M. The extreme length of the island is 32 M. the breadth W. to E. 21 m.; the See also:area is about 400 sq. m. From the See also:coast the land rises towards lofty verdant mountains (St Thomas over 7000 ft.). At least a See also:hundred streams, great and small, descend the See also:mountain-sides through deep-cut ravines, many of them forming beautiful waterfalls, such as those of Blu-blu on the Agua Grande. The island during its occupation by the See also:Netherlands acquired the name of " The Dutchman's See also:Churchyard," and the death-See also:rate is still very high. See also:Malaria is common in the See also:lower regions, but the unhealthiness of the island is largely due to the See also:absence of hygienic precautions. During the dry See also:season (See also:June to See also:September) the temperature ranges in the lower parts between 66.2° and 80•6° F., and in the higher parts between 57.2° and 68°; in the See also:rainy season it ranges between 69.8° and 89.6° in the lower parts, and between 64.4° and 80.6° in the higher parts. On See also:Coffee See also:Mount (2265 ft.) the mean of ten years was 68.9° the maximum 90•5° and the minimum 47.3°. The See also:heat is tempered by the See also:equatorial ocean current. The rainfall is very heavy See also:save on the north coast. The See also:soil is exceedingly fertile and a considerable area is densely forested. Among the products are oranges, lemons, See also:figs, mangoes, and in the lower districts the See also:vine, pineapple, See also:guava and See also:banana. The first object of European cultivation was See also:sugar, and to this the island owed its prosperity in the 16th century;. sugar has been displaced by coffee and, principally, See also:cocoa, introduced in 1795 and 1822 respectively. In 1907 the export of cocoa (including that from Principe) was over 24,000 tons, about a See also:sixth of the world's See also:supply. The cocoa See also:zone lies between 65o and 2000 ft. above the sea. See also:Vanilla and See also:cinchona bark both succeed well, the latter at altitudes of from 1800 to 3300 ft. See also:Rubber, See also:quinine, See also:cinnamon, camphor and the See also:kola-See also:nut are also produced, but since 189o—when the production was under 3000 tons—cocoa has been almost exclusively grown. About 175 sq. m. were in 1910 under cultivation. The value of the imports was £175,000 in 1896 and £708,000 in 1908; that of the exports was £398,000 in 1896 and £1,760,000 in 1908. The See also:shipping trade (190 vessels of 490,000 tons in 1908) is chiefly in the hands of the Portuguese. The See also:revenue (1909-1910) was about £195,000, the See also:expenditure £162,000. At the See also:census of 1900 the inhabitants were returned at 37,776, of whom 1012 were whites (mainly Portuguese). The town of St Thomas, capital and chief port of the province, See also:residence of the governor and of the Curador (the legal See also:guardian of the servircaes, i.e. labourers), is situated on See also:Chaves See also:Bay on the N.E. coast. It is the starting-point of a railway 9 M. long, which connects with the 1)ecauville railways on the cocoa estates. The inhabitants, apart from the Europeans, consist (1) of descendants of the original settlers, who were convicts from See also:Portugal, slaves and others from See also:Brazil and negroes from the Gabun and other parts of the Guinea coast. They number about Woo, are a See also: The French did great damage in 1709; the sugar trade had passed to Brazil and See also:internal anarchy reduced St Thomas to a deplorable state. It was not until the later See also: See also:Grey reported in The Times, July 2nd, 1910). As one means of obviating the difficulties encountered in Angola the recruitment of labourers from See also:Mozambique was begun in 1908, the men going out on a yearly contract. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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