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BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
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BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA , or BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA, two provinces formerly included in See also:European See also:Turkey, which now, together with See also:Dalmatia, See also:form the southernmost territories of the Austro-Hungarian See also:Monarchy. The name Herzegovina is also written Hertzegovina, Hertsegovina or, in Croatian, Hercegovina. In shape roughly resembling an equilateral triangle, with See also:base uppermost, Bosnia and Herzegovina See also:cover an See also:area of 19,696 sq. m., in the See also:north-See also:west of the See also:Balkan See also:Peninsula. They are bounded N. and N.W. by Croatia-Slavonia; W. and S.W. by Dalmatia; S.E. by See also:Montenegro and the Sanjak of Novibazar; and N.E. by See also:Servia. Opposite to the promontory of Sabbioncello, and at the entrance to the Bocche di See also:Cattaro, the frontier of Herzegovina comes down to the Adriatic; but these two strips of See also:coast do not contain any See also:good See also:harbour, and extend only for a See also:total distance of 14 m. Bosnia is altogether an inland territory. r. See also:Physical Features.—Along the Dalmatian border, and through the centre of Bosnia, runs the backbone of the Dinaric See also:Alps, which attain their greatest altitudes (6000-7500 ft.) near See also:Travnik, See also:Serajevo and See also:Mostar. There are numerous high valleys shut in among the mountains of this range; the most noteworthy being the See also:plain of See also:Livno, which lies parallel to the Dalmatian border, at a height of 500 ft. above the See also:sea. The See also:zone of See also:highlands throughout Bosnia and Herzegovina reaches a mean See also:altitude of 1500 ft., while summits of more than 4000 ft. occur frequently. To the north-See also:east of the Dinaric Alps extends a region of See also:mountain, See also:moor and See also:forest, with deeply sunk alluvial basins, which finally expand into the lowlands of the Posavina, or Vale of the See also:Save, forming the southernmost fringe of the Hungarian Alfold. Bosnia belongs wholly to the See also:watershed of the Save, and its See also:rivers to the Danubian See also:system, no large stream finding a way to the Adriatic. The Save flows eastward along the See also:northern frontier for 237 M. It is joined by four See also:main tributaries, the Drina, Bosna, Vrbas and Una. The Drina is formed on the Montenegrin frontier by the See also:united streams of the See also:Tara and Piva; curving north-eastwards past Visegrad, it See also:marches for 102 M. with Servian territory, and falls into the Save at Racha, after a total course of 155 M. The Bosna issues from many springs near Serajevo, and winds for 107 M. northward, through a See also:succession of fertile glens, reaching the Save 1 m. west of Samac. Farther west, the Vrbas cuts a channel through the Dinaric Alps, and, after passing See also:Jajce and See also:Banjaluka, meets the Save 94 M. from its own headwaters. The Una rises on the Croatian border, and, after skirting the Pljesevica Planina, in Croatia, turns sharply to the north-east; serving as a frontier stream for 37 M. before entering the Save at Jasenovac. Its length is 98 M. At Novi it is joined by the See also:Sana, a considerable affluent. Herzegovina, which lies See also:south of Bosnia, in a parallelogram defined by Montenegro, Dalmatia, the Dinaric Alps, and an irregular See also:line See also:drawn from a point 25 M. west-north-west of Mostar to the See also:bend of the See also:river Narenta, differs in many respects from the larger territory. Its mountains, which belong to the Adriatic watershed, and form a continuation of the Montenegrin highlands, are less rounded and more dolomitic in See also:character. They descend In parallel ridges of See also:grey See also:Karst See also:limestone, south-westwards to the sea; their last summits reappear in the multitude of rocky islands along the Dalmatian littoral. As in the peaks of Orjen, Orobac, Samotica and Veliki Kap, their height often exceeds 6000 ft. West of the Narenta, their flanks are in places covered with forests of See also:beech and See also:pine, but north-east of that river they See also:present for the most See also:part a See also:scene of barren desolation. Their monotony is varied only by the fruitful river-valleys and Mies, or upland hollows, where the smaller towns and villages are grouped; the districts or cantons thus formed are walled See also:round by a natural rampart of limestone. These polies may be described as oases in what is otherwise a See also:desert expanse of mountains. The See also:surface of some, as notably the Mostarsko Blato, lying west of Mostar, is marshy, and in See also:spring forms a See also:lake; others are watered by streams which disappear in See also:swallow-holes of the See also:rock, and make their way by underground channels either to the sea or the Narenta. The most conspicuous example of these is the TrebinjCica, which disappears in two swallow-holes in Popovopolye, and after making its way by a subterranean passage through a range of mountains, See also:wells up in the mighty source of Ombla near See also:Ragusa, and hurries in undiminished See also:volume to the Adriatic. The Narenta, or Neretva, is the one large river of Herzegovina which flows above ground throughout its length. Rising on the Montenegrin border, under the Lebrsnik mountains, it flows north-westwards at the See also:foot of the Dinaric Alps; and, near Konjica, sweeps round suddenly to the south, and falls into the Adriatic near Metkovic, after traversing 125 M. North of Mostar, it cleaves a passage through the celebrated Narenta See also:defile, a narrow See also:gorge, 12 M. See also:long, overshadowed by mountains which rise on either See also:side and culminate in Lupoglav (6796 ft.) on the east, and Cvrstnica (7205 ft.) on the west. 2. See also:Geology and Minerals.—Geologically, the highlands of Bosnia and Herzegovina are to be regarded, in both their orographic and tectonic character, as a continuation of the South Alpine calcareous See also:belt. Along the west frontier there appear broad and strongly marked zones of Cretaceous limestone, alternating with See also:Jurassic and Triassic, joined by a See also:strip of Palaeozoic formations See also:running from the north-west corner of Bosnia. Next, proceeding from this region in an easterly direction, are the Neogene See also:freshwater formations, filling up the greatest part of the north-east of Bosnia, as also a zone of See also:flysch intermingled with several strips of eruptive rock. In the south-east of Bosnia the predominant formations are Triassic and Palaeozoic strata with red See also:sandstone and See also:quartzite. Along the whole northern rim of Bosnia, as also in the fluvial and Karst valleys (polies), are found diluvial and alluvial formations, interrupted at one See also:place by an isolated See also:granite layer. Bosnia is See also:rich in minerals, including See also:coal, See also:iron, See also:copper, chrome, See also:manganese, See also:cinnabar, See also:zinc and See also:mercury, besides See also:marble and much excellent See also:building See also: In Serajevo the mean See also:annual temperature is 5o° Fahr. Herzegovina has more See also:affinity to the Dalmatian mountains, oppressively hot in summer, when the mercury often rises beyond io° Fahr. The winter rains of the Karst region show that it belongs to the sub-tropical See also:climatic zone. 4. See also:Fauna.—In 1893 the bones of a See also:cave-See also:bear (Ursus spelaeus) were taken from a cavern of the Bjelasnica range, in Herzegovina, a See also:discovery without parallel in the Balkan Peninsula. Of existing See also:species the bear, See also:BOAR (0. Eng. bar; the word is found only in W. Ger. languages, cf. Dutch beer, Ger. Eber)boar, See also:badger, See also:roe-See also:deer and See also:chamois may occasionally be seen in the remotest wilds of mountain and forest. See also:Hares are uncommon, and the last red-deer was shot in 1814; but wolves, otters and squirrels abound. See also:Snipe, See also:woodcock, ducks and rails, in vast flocks, haunt the See also:banks of the Drina and Save; while the See also:crane, See also:pelican, wild-See also:swan and wild-See also:goose are fairly plentiful. The lammergeier (Gypaetus barbalus) had almost become See also:extinct in 'goo; but several varieties of See also:eagle and See also:falcon are See also:left. See also:Falconry was long a pastime of the Moslem landlords. The destruction of See also:game, recklessly carried out under See also:Turkish See also:rule, is prevented by the See also:laws of 188o, 1883 and 1893, which enforced a See also:close See also:time, and rendered See also:shooting-licences necessary. The See also:list of See also:reptiles includes the venomous Vipera ammodytes and See also:Pelias berus, while scorpions and lizards infest the stony wastes of the Karst. In the museum at Serajevo there is a large entomological collection, including the remarkable Pogonus anophthalmus, from the underground Karst caves. The caves are rich in curious kinds of See also:fish, Paraphoxinus Gethaldii, which is unknown elsewhere, Chondrostoma phoximus, Phoxinellus alepidatus and others, which are caught and eaten by the peasantry. In Herzegovina, although many of the high mountain tarns are unproductive, the See also:eel-See also:fisheries of the Narenta are of considerable value. See also:Leech-gathering is a characteristic Bosnian See also:industry. The streams of both territories yield excellent See also:trout and See also:crayfish; See also:salmon, See also:sturgeon and sterlet, from the See also:Danube, are netted in the Save. 5. See also:Flora.—Serajevo museum has a collection of the Bosnian flora, representing over 3000 species; among them, the rare Forests. See also:Veronica crinita, Pinus leucodermis, Picea omorica and See also:Daphne Blagayana. About 5o% of the occupied territory is clothed with forest. " Bosnia begins with the forest," says a native See also:proverb, " Herzegovina with the rock "; and this See also:account is, broadly speaking, accurate, although the Bosnian Karst is as See also:bare as that of Herzegovina. Below the mountain crests, where only the hardiest See also:lichens and mosses can survive, comes a belt of large See also:timber, including many See also:giant trees, 200 ft. high, and 20 ft. in girth at the level of a See also:man's See also:shoulder. Dense brushwood prevails on the foothills. There are three main zones of woodland. Up to 2500 ft. among the ranges of northern Bosnia, the sunnier slopes are overgrown by oaks, the shadier by beeches. Farther south, in central Bosnia, the See also:oak rarely mounts beyond the foothills, being superseded by the beech, See also:elm, ash, See also:fir and pine, up to 5000 ft. The third zone is characterized by the predominance, up to 6000 ft., of the fir, pine and other conifers. In all three zones occur the See also:chestnut, See also:aspen, See also:willow (especially Salix laurea), See also:hornbeam, See also:birch, See also:alder, See also:juniper and See also:yew; while the mountain ash, See also:hazel, wild See also:plum, wild See also:pear and other wild See also:fruit trees are found at rarer intervals. Until 1878 the forests were almost neglected; afterwards, the government was forced to See also:levy a graduated tax on goats, owing to the damage they inflicted upon See also:young trees, and to curtail the popular rights of cutting timber and fir-See also:wood and of pasturage. These See also:measures were largely successful, but in 1902 the export of oak staves was discontinued owing to a shortage of See also:supply. 6. See also:Agriculture.—In 1895, according to the agricultural survey, the surface of Bosnia and Herzegovina was laid out as follows: Acres. Plough-See also:land • 2,355,499 See also:Garden-ground. . 103,040 Meadow . 739,200 Vineyards . . 12,598 Pasture . 1,875,840 Forest . 5,670,619 Unproductive 210,998 Apart from the arid wastes of the Karst, the See also:soil is well adapted for the growing of cereals, especially See also:Indian See also:corn; See also:olives, vines, mulberries, See also:figs, pomegranates, melons, oranges, lemons, See also:rice and See also:tobacco flourish in Herzegovina and the more sheltered portions of Bosnia. Near Doboj, on the Bosna, there is a See also:state See also:sugar-refinery, for which beetroot is largely grown in the vicinity. See also:Pyrethrum cinerariaefolium is exported for the manufacture of See also:insect-See also:powder, and sunflowers are cultivated for the oil contained in their seeds. The plum-orchards of the Posavina furnish prunes and a spirit called glivovica, shlivovitsa or sliwowitz. This See also:district is the headquarters of a thriving See also:trade in pigs. Poultry, bees and silkworms are commonly kept. On the whole agriculture is backward, despite the richness of the soil; for the cultivators are a very conservative See also:race, and prefer the methods and implements of their ancestors. Many improvements were, nevertheless, introduced by the government after 1878. Machinery was See also:lent to the farmers, and See also:free grants of See also:seed were made. See also:Model farms were established at Livno and at Gacko, on the Montenegrin border; a school of viticulture near Mostar; a model poultry-See also:farm at Prijedor, close to the Croatian boundary; a school of agriculture and See also:dairy farming at Ilidze; and another school at Modric, near the mouth of the Bosna, where a certain number of See also:village schoolmasters are annually trained, for six See also:weeks, in See also:practical husbandry. Seed is distributed, and agricultural machinery lent, by the government. To better the breeds of live-stock, a See also:stud-farm was opened near Serajevo, and See also:foreign horses, See also:cattle, See also:sheep and poultry are imported. 7. Land See also:Tenure.—The zadruga, or See also:household community, more See also:common in Servia (q.v.), survives to a small extent in Bosnia and Herzegovina; but, as a rule, the tenure of land resembles the system called metayage. At the time of the Austrian occupation (1878) it was regulated by a Turkish enactment' of the 12th of See also:September 1859. Apart from gardens and See also:house-See also:property, all land was, according to this enactment, owned by the state; in practice, it was held by the Moslem begs or beys (nobles) and See also:agas (landlords), who let it to the peasantry. The landlord received from his See also:tenant (kmet) a fixed percentage, usually one third ('retina), of the annual produce; and, of the remaining two thirds, the See also:cash See also:equivalent of one tenth (desetina) went to the state. The amount of the desetina was always fixed first, and served as a basis for the See also:assessment of the tretina, which, however, was generally paid in See also:kind. At any time the tenant could relinquish his holding; but he could only be evicted for refusing to pay his /retina, for wilful neglect of his land or for damage done to it. The landlord was See also:bound to keep his tenants' dwellings and outhouses in repair. Should he See also:desire to sell his estates, the right of pre-emption belonged to the tenants, or, in See also:default, to the neighbours. Thus foreign speculators in land were excluded, while a class of -See also:peasant proprietors was created; its See also:numbers being increased by the See also:custom that, if any man reclaimed a piece of See also:waste land, it became his own property after ten years. The Turkish land-system remained in force during the entire See also:period of the occupation (1878-igo8). It had worked, on the whole, satisfactorily; and between 1885 and 1895 the number of peasants farming their own land See also:rose from 117,000 to 200,000. One conspicuous feature of the Bosnian land-system is the Moslem Vakuf, or ecclesiastical property, consisting of estates dedicated to such charitable purposes as poor-See also:relief, and the endowment of mosques, See also:schools, hospitals, cemeteries and See also:baths. It is administered by a central See also:board of Moslem officials, who meet in ' This was soon modified in detail. Arrears of See also:debt, for instance, were made recoverable for one See also:year only, instead of the ten years allowed by Turkish See also:law. Serajevo, under state supervision. Its income rose to £25,000 in 1895, having quadrupled. itself in ten years. The Vakuf tenants were at that time extremely prosperous, for their See also:rent had been fixed for ten years in advance on the basis of the year's See also:harvest, and so had not risen proportionately to the value of their holdings. 8. See also:Industries and See also:Commerce.—Beside agriculture, which employed over 88% of the whole See also:population in 1895, the other industries are insignificant. See also:Chief among them are See also:weaving and See also:leather and See also:metal See also:work, carried on by the workmen in their own houses. There are also government workshops, opened with a view to a higher technical and See also:artistic development of the house industry. More particularly, chased and inlaid metallic wares, bez (thin See also:cotton) and See also:carpet - weaving receive government support. Besides the sugar-refinery already mentioned, there were in 190o four tobacco factories, a See also:national See also:printing-See also:press, an See also:annular See also:furnace for See also:brick-burning, an iron-foundry and several blast-furnaces, under the management of the state. Among the larger private establishments there existed in the same year seven breweries, one See also:brandy distillery, two jam, two See also:soap and See also:candle factories, two building and See also:furniture See also:works, a factory for See also:spinning See also:thread, one iron and See also:steel works, one See also:paper and one See also:ammonia and soda factory, and one mineral-oil refinery. In respect of foreign trade Bosnia and Herzegovina were in 1882 included in the customs and commercial system of See also:Austria-See also:Hungary, to the extinction of all intermediate imposts. Since 1898 See also:special See also:statistics have been drawn up respecting their trade also with Austria and Hungary. According to these statistics the most important articles of export are coal and See also:turf, fruit, minerals, soda, iron and steel, and cattle. Other articles of export are chemicals, See also:dyeing and tanning stuffs, tobacco, sugar-See also:beet and See also:kitchen-salt. The imports consist principally of See also:food stuffs, building materials, drinks, sugar, machinery, See also:glass, fats, clothes, wooden and stone wares, and various manufactured goods. There is a national See also:bank in Serajevo; which carries on a hypothecary See also:credit business and manages the wholesale trade of the tobacco factories. There are savings banks in Banjaluka, Bjelina and Brcka. 9. Communications.—The construction of See also:carriage-roads, wholly neglected by the See also:Turks, was carried out on a large See also:scale by the Austrians. Two See also:railways were also built, in connexion with the Hungarian state system. One crosses the Una at Kostajnica, and, after skirting the right bank of that river as far as Novi, strikes eastward to Banjaluka. The other, a narrow-See also:gauge line, crosses the Save at Bosna See also:Brod, and follows the Bosna to Serajevo, throwing out branches eastward beyond Dolnja Tuzla, and westward to Jajce and Bugojno. It then pierces through the mountains of northern Herzegovina, traverses the Narenta valley, and runs almost parallel with the coast to See also:Trebinje, Ragusa and the Bocche di Cattaro. Up to this point the railways of the occupied territory were See also:complete in 1901. A farther line, from Serajevo to the frontiers of Servia and Novibazar, was undertaken in 1902, and by 1906 782 M. of railway were open. Small steamers ply on the Drina, Save and Una, but the Bosna, though broad from its very source, is, like the Vrbas, too full of shallows to be utilized; while the Narenta only begins to be navigable when it enters Dalmatia. All the railway lines, like the postal, telegraphic and telephonic services, are state property. In many of the See also:principal towns there are also government hotels. Serajevo, with 41,543 inhabitants in 1895, is the See also:capital of the combined provinces, and other important places are Mostar (17,010), the capital of Herzegovina, Banjaluka (14,812), Dolnja. Tuz1a (11,034), Travnik (6626), Livno (5273), See also:Visoko(5000), Foca (4217), Jajce (3929) and Trebinje (2966). All these are described in See also:separate articles. ro. Population and National Characteristics.—In 1895 the population, which tends to increase slowly, with a preponderance of See also:males over See also:females, numbered 1,568,092. The See also:alien See also:element is small, consisting chiefly of Austro-Hungarians, See also:gipsies, Italians and See also:Jews. See also:Spanish is a comomon See also:language of the Jews, whose ancestors fled hither, during the 16th century, to See also:escape !'s- See also:Inquisition. The natives are officially described as Bosniaks,but classify themselves according to See also:religion. Thus the See also:Roman Catholics prefer the name of Croats, Hrvats or Latins; the Orthodox, of Serbs; the Moslems, of Turks. All alike belong to the Serbo-Croatian See also:branch of the See also:Slavonic race; and all speak a language almost identical with Servian, though written by the Roman Catholics in Latin instead of See also:Cyrillic letters. A full account of this language, and its literature, is given under SERVIA and CROATIA-SLAVONIA. To avoid offending either " Serbs " or " Croats," it is officially designated " Bosnisch." In some parts of Herzegovina the See also:dress, See also:manners and physical type of the peasantry are akin to those of Montenegro. The Bosnians or Bosniaks resemble their Servian kinsfolk in both See also:appearance and character. They have the same love for See also:poetry, See also:music and See also:romance; the same intense See also:pride in their race and See also:history; many of the same superstitions and customs. The Christians retain the Servian See also:costume, modified in detail, as by the occasional use of the See also:turban or See also:fez. The " Turkish " See also:women have in some districts abandoned the See also:veil; but in others they even cover the eyes when they leave See also:home. Poly-gamy is almost unknown, possibly because many of the " Turks " are descended from the austere See also:Bogomils, who were, in most cases, converted to See also:Islam, but more probably because the " Turks " are as a rule too poor to provide for more than one wife on the scale required by Islamic law. In See also:general, the See also:people of Bosnia and Herzegovina are sober and thrifty, subsisting chiefly on Indian corn, dried See also:meat, See also:milk and vegetables. Their houses are built of timber and See also:thatch, or See also:clay tiles, except in the Karst region, where stone is more plentiful than wood. See also:Family ties are strong, and the women are not See also:ill-treated, although they See also:share in all kinds of See also:manual labour. II. Government.—At the time of the Austrian See also:annexation in 1908, the only remaining token of See also:Ottoman See also:suzerainty was that the foreign consuls received their See also:exequatur from Turkey, instead of Austria; otherwise the government of the See also:country was conducted in the name of the Austrian See also:emperor, through the imperial See also:minister of See also:finance at See also:Vienna, who controlled the See also:civil service for the occupied territory. Its central See also:bureau, with departments of the interior, religion and See also:education, finance and See also:justice, was established at Serajevo; and its members were largely recruited among the Austrian Slays, who were better able than the Germans to comprehend the See also:local customs and language. A consultative See also:assembly, composed of the highest ecclesiastical authorities, together with 12 popular representatives, also met at Serajevo. For administrative purposes the country was divided into 6 districts or prefectures (kreise), which were subdivided into 49 subprefectures (bezirke). Every large See also:town has a See also:mayor and See also:deputy mayor, appointed by the government, and a town See also:council, of whom one third are similarly appointed, while the citizens choose the See also:rest; a proportionate number of councillors representing each religious community. To ensure See also:economy, the decisions of this See also:body are supervised by a government See also:commissioner. The See also:commune is preserved, somewhat as in Servia (q.v.), but with modified See also:powers. Each district has its See also:court of law, where cases are tried by three See also:official See also:judges and two assessors, selected from the leading citizens. The assessors See also:vote equally with the judges, and three votes decide the See also:verdict. Except where the litigants and witnesses are See also:German, the Serbo-Croatian language is used. An See also:appeal, on points of law alone, may be carried to the supreme court in Serajevo, and there tried by five judges without assessors. In cases not involving a sum greater than 300 florins (£25), no appeal will See also:lie; and where only 50 florins (£4:3:4) are in question; the See also:case is summarily decided at the See also:Bagatelle Gericht, or court for trifling cases. The number of lawyers admitted to practice is strictly limited. As far as possible, the Turkish law was retained during the period of occupation; all cases between Moslems were settled in separate courts by Moslem judges, against whom there was an appeal to the supreme court, aided by assessors. All able-bodied males are liable, on reaching their 21st year, for 3 years' service with the See also:colours, and 9 years in the reserve. The See also:garrison numbers about 20,000 Austrian troops, and there are 7100 native troops. The principal military stations are Bjelina, Zvornik, Vi"segrad, Gorazda, Foca, Bilek, Avtovac and Trebinje, along the eastern frontier; Mostar and Stolac in the south; Livno in the west; and Bihac in the north. 12. Religion.—In 1895 43 % of the population were Orthodox Christians, 35% Moslems and 21% Roman Catholics. The See also:patriarch of See also:Constantinople is the nominal See also:head of the Orthodox priesthood; but by an arrangement concluded in 18i9, his authority was delegated to the Austrian emperor, in See also:exchange for a See also:revenue equal to the See also:tribute previously paid by the See also:clergy of the provinces; and his nominations for the metropolitanate of Serajevo, and the bishoprics of Dolnja Tuzla, Banjaluka and Mostar require the imperial assent. Under Turkish rule the communes See also:chose their own See also:parish priests, but this right is now vested in the government. The Roman Catholics have an See also:archbishop in Serajevo, a See also:bishop in Mostar and an apostolic See also:administrator in Banjaluka. Serajevo is also the seat of the Jewish chief See also:rabbi; and of the highest Moslem ecclesiastic, or reis-el-See also:ulema, who with his council is nominated and paid by the government. The inferior Moslem clergy draw their stipends from the Vakuf. Considerable bitterness prevails between the See also:rival confessions, each aiming at See also:political ascendancy, but the government favours none. In See also:order to conciliate even the Moslems, who include the bulk of the See also:great landholders and of the See also:urban population, its representatives visit the mosques in state on festivals; grants are made for the See also:Mecca See also:pilgrimage; and even the howling Dervishes in Serajevo are maintained by the state. 13. Education.—Education for boys and girls between the ages of seven and fifteen is free, but not compulsory. The state supports See also:primary schools (352 in 1905), where See also:reading, See also:writing, See also:arithmetic and history are taught; and separate instruction is given by the Orthodox, Roman See also:Catholic, Jewish and Moslem clergy. There are also various private schools, belonging to the different religious communities. These receive a See also: 
The period between the downfall of Roman See also:power, See also:late in the 5th century, and the growth of a Bosnian state, in the 11th, is poorer in antiquities. The later middle ages are represented by several monasteries, and many castles, such as those of Dervent, Doboj, Maglaj, 2epce and Vranduk, on the Bosna; Bihac, onthe Una; Prijedor and Kljuc, on the Sana; and Stolac, Gabela, Irebinje and Konjica, in Herzegovina. The See also:bridge across the Narenta, at Konjica, is said to date from the loth century. A See also:group of signs carved on some rocks near Visegrad have been regarded as See also:cuneiform writing, but are probably See also:medieval masonic symbols. In a few cases, such as the Begova Dzamia at Serajevo, the Fo'See also:ea mosques and the Mostar bridge, the buildings raised by the Turks are of high. architectural merit. More remarkable are the tombstones, generally measuring 6 ft. in length, 3 in height and 3 in breadth, which have been supposed to See also:mark the See also:graves of the Bogomils. These are, as a rule, quite unadorned, a few only being decorated with See also:rude bas-reliefs of animals, See also:plants, weapons, the See also:crescent and See also:star, or, very rarely, the See also:cross. 15. History.—Under Roman rule Bosnia had no separate name or history, and until the great Slavonic See also:immigration of 636 it remained an undifferentiated part of Illyria v.)• Owing to the scarcity of the of authoritative docu- of the on (q.v.). Owing to the scarcity of authoritative docu- of the ments, it is impossible to describe in detail the events eanate. of the next three centuries. During this period Bosnia became the generally accepted name for the valley of the Bosna (See also:ancient Basanius); and subsequently for several outlying and tributary principalities, notably those of See also:Soli, afterwards Tuzla; Usora, along the south-eastern bank of the Save; Donji Kraj, the later Krajina, Kraina or Turkish Croatia, in the north-west; and Rama, the See also:modern district of Livno. The old Illyrian population was rapidly absorbed or expelled, its Latin institutions being replaced by the autonomous tribal divisions, or Zupanates, of the Slays. Pressure from Hungary and See also:Byzantium gradually welded these isolated social See also:units into a single nation, whose ruler was known as the See also:Ban (q.v.). ° But the central power remained weak, and the country possessed no strong natural frontiers. It seems probable that the bans were originally viceroys of the Croatian See also:kings, who resumed their See also:sovereignty over Bosnia from 958 to See also:Toro. Thenceforward, until 118o, the bans continued subject to the Eastern See also:empire or Hungary, with brief intervals of See also:independence. The territory now called Herzegovina was also subject to various foreign powers. It comprised the principalities of Tribunia or Travunja, with its capital at Trebinje; and Hlum or Hum, the Zachlumia of See also:Constantine Porphyrogenitus, who gives a clear picture of this region as it was in the loth centuryel The See also:schism between Eastern and Western Christendom left Bosnia divided between the See also:Greek and Latin Churches. See also:Early in the 12th century a new religion, that of the Bogomils (q.v.), was introduced, and denounced as heretical. congloas ntro- Its converts nevertheless included many of the Bosnian versies. nobles and the ban Kulin (I18o-12o4), whose reign was long proverbial for its prosperity, owing to the flourishing state of commerce and agriculture, and the extensive mining operations carried on by the Ragusans. An unusually able ruler, connected by See also:marriage with the powerful Servian See also:dynasty of Nemanya, and by treaty with the See also:republic of Ragusa,2 Kulin perceived in the new doctrines a barrier between his subjects and Hungary. He was compelled to recant, under strong pressure from See also:Pope See also:Innocent III. and See also:Bela III. of Hungary; but, despite all efforts, Bogomilism incessantly gained ground. In 1232 See also:Stephen, the successor of Kulin, was dethroned by the native magnates, who chose instead See also:Matthew Ninoslav, a Bogomil. This event illustrates the three dominant characteristics of Bosnian history: the strength of the See also:aristocracy; the corresponding weakness of the central authority, enhanced by the lack of any definite rule of See also:inheritance; and the supreme See also:influence of religion. Threatened by Pope See also:Gregory IX. with a crusade, Ninoslav was baptized, only to abjure See also:Christianity in 1233. For six years he withstood the Hungarian crusaders, led by Kaloman, See also:duke of Croatia; in 1241 the Tatar invasion of
1 De Administrando Imperio, 33 and 34. The names of Chulmia and Chelmo, applied to this region by later Latin and See also:Italian chroniclers, are occasionally adopted by English writers.
2 For the commercial and political relations of Ragusa and Bosnia, see L. See also:Villari, The Republic of Ragusa (See also:London, 1904).
Hungary afforded him a brief See also:respite; and in 1244 See also:peace was concluded after a Bosnian See also:campaign against Croatia. A renewal of the crusade proving equally vain, in 1247 Pope Innocent III. entered into friendly negotiations with the ban, whose country was for the moment an See also:independent and formidable state. The importance attached to its See also:conversion is well attested by the See also:correspondence of Pope Gregory IX. with Ninoslav and various Bosnian ecclesiastics.'
On the See also:death of Ninoslav in 1250, vigorous efforts were made to exterminate the Bpgomil See also:heresy; and to this end, Bela IV., who appeared as the See also:champion of Roman Catholicism, secured the See also:election of his nominee Prijesda to the See also:banate. See also:Direct Hungarian suzerainty lasted until 1299, the bans preserving only a See also:shadow of their former power. From 1299 to 1322 the country was ruled by the Croatian princes, See also:Paul and Mladen Subic, who, though vassals of Hungary, reunited the provinces of Upper and See also:Lower Bosnia, created by the Hungarians in order to prevent the growth of a dangerous national unity. A rising of the native magnates in 1322 resulted in the election of the Bogomil, Stephen Kotromanic, last and greatest of the Bosnian bans.
At this period the Servian empire had reached its See also:zenith; Hungary, governed by the feeble monarch, See also: In an unsuccessful See also:war against the Croats (1322–26), from which Venice derived the See also:sole See also:advantage, the ban appears to have learned the value of sea-power; immediately afterwards he occupied the principality of Hlum and the Dalmatian littoral between See also:Spalato and the river Narenta. Ragusa furnished him with See also:money and a See also:fleet, in return for a See also:guarantee of See also:protection; commercial See also:treaties with Venice further strengthened his position; and the Vatican, which had instigated the Croats to invade the dominions of their heretical See also:neighbour (1337–40), was conciliated by his conversion to Roman Catholicism. Defeated by the Servian See also:tsar Dushan, and driven to ally himself with Servia and Venice against See also: The disaster
' Given by Theiner, Vetera monumenta Hungariam . . . illustrantia, 1. 73-185.of Kossovo, though fatal to his ambition, .did not immediately react on Bosnia itself; and when Tvrtko died in 1391, his kingdom was still at the See also:summit of its prosperity.
KotromaniC and Tvrtko had known how to crush or conciliate their turbulent magnates, whose power reasserted itself under Dabila (Stephen II., 1391–1398), a See also:brother of Tvrtko. Sigismond of Hungary profited by the disorder that Dec/tna of ensued to regain Croatia and Dalmatia; and in 1398 Bosnian the Turks, aided by renegade Slays,2 overran Bosnia. kingdom. Ostoja (Stephen III., 1398–1418), an illegitimate son of Tvrtko, proved a puppet in the hands of Hrvoje Vukcic, duke of Spalato, Sandalj Hranic,3 and other leaders of the aristocracy, who fought indifferently against the Turks, the Hungarians, the king or one another. Some upheld a rival claimant to the See also:throne in Tvrtkovic, a legitimate son of Tvrtko, and all took sides in the incessant See also:feud between Bogomils and Roman Catholics. During the reigns of Ostojic (Stephen IV., 1418–1421) and Tvrtkovic (Stephen V., 1421–1444) Bosnia was thus left an easy See also:prey to the Turks, who exacted a yearly tribute, after again ravaging the country, and carrying off many thousands of slaves, with a vast See also:store of See also:plunder.
The losses inflicted on the Turks by See also:Hunyadi Janos, and the See also:attempt to organize a defensive See also:league among the neighbouring See also:Christian lands, temporarily averted the ruin of
Bosnia under See also: Vukcic—or Cosaccia, as he is frequently called by the contemporary chroniclers, from his birthplace, Cosacwas the first and last holder of the title " Duke of St Sava," conferred on him by the emperor See also:Frederick III. in 1448; and from this title is derived the name Herzegovina, or " the Duchy." Hardly had the king become reconciled with this formidable antagonist, when, in 14531 the death of Hunyadi, and the fall of Constantinople, left Bosnia defenceless against the Turks. In 146o it was again invaded. Venice and the Papacy were 'unable, and Hungary unwilling, to render assistance; while the Croats proved actively hostile. Ostojic died in 1461, and his successor Tomasevic (Stephen VII., 1461–1463) surrendered to the Turks and was beheaded. Herzegovina, where Vuk6i6 offered a desperate resistance, held out until 1483; but apart from the heroic See also:defence of Jajce, the efforts of the Bosnians were feeble and inglorious, many of the Bogomils joining the enemy. From 1463 the greater part of the country submitted to the Turks; but the districts of Jajce and Srebrenica were occupied by Hungarian garrisons, and organized as a separate " banate " or " kingdom of Bosnia," until 1526, when the Hungarian power was broken at See also:Mohacs. In 1528 Jajce surrendered, after repelling every attack by the Turkish armies for 65 years. The fall of Jajce was the consummation of theTurkish conquest. It was followed by the See also:flight of large bodies of Christian refugees. Many of the Roman Catholics withdrew into Croatia-Slavonia and south Hungary, where they ultimately See also:fell again under Ottoman dominion. Others found shelter in See also:Rome or Venice, and a large number settled in Ragusa, where they doubtless contributed to the remarkable See also:literary development of the 16th . and 17th centuries in which the use of the Bosnian See also:dialect was a characteristic feature. Some of the most daring See also:spirits waged war on their conquerors from Clissa in Dalmatia, and afterwards from See also:Zengg in maritime Croatia, where they formed the notorious pirate community of the See also:Uskoks (q.v.). There was less inducement for the Orthodox inhabitants to emigrate, because almost
2 This is the first recorded instance of such an See also:alliance. The Slays were probably Bogomils.
3 These magnates played a considerable part in the politics of south-easiekn See also:Europe; see especially their correspondence with the Venetian Republic, given by Shafarik, Acta archivi See also:Veneti, &c.
Period of Hungarian supremacy.
Stephen Kotromanic.
See also:Establishment of the
Bosnian kingdom.
all the neighbouring lands were governed by Moslems or Roman Catholics; and at home the peasants were permitted to retain their creed and communal organization. Judged by its influence. on Bosnian politics, the Orthodox community was relatively unimportant at the Turkish conquest; and its subsequent growth is perhaps due to the official recognition of the Greek See also: The Turkish See also:triumph was the opportunity of the Bogomils, who thenceforth, assuming a new character, controlled the Bosnia destinies of their country for more than three centuries. under Bosnia was regarded by successive sultans as the Turkish gateway into Hungary; hatred of the Hungarians role. and their religion was hereditary among the Bogomils. Thus the desire for vengeance and the prospect of a brilliant military career impelled the Bogomil magnates to adopt the creed of Islam, which, in its austerity, presented some points of resemblance to their own doctrines. The nominal See also:governor of the country was the Turkish vali, who resided at Banjaluka or Travnik, and rarely interfered in local affairs, if the taxes were duly paid. Below him ranked the newly converted Moslem aristocracy, who adopted the dress, titles and See also:etiquette of the Turkish court, without relinquishing their language or many of their old customs. They dwelt in fortified 'towns or castles, where the vali was only admitted on sufferance for a few days; and, at the outset, they formed a separate military See also:caste, headed by 48 kapelans—landholders exercising unfettered authority over their retainers and Christian See also:serfs, but bound, in return, to provide a company of mounted troops for the service of their See also:sovereign. Their favourite pursuits were fighting, either against a common enemy or among themselves; See also:hunting, hawking and listening to the minstrels who celebrated their exploits. Their yearly visits to Serajevo assumed in time the character of an informal See also:parliament, for the discussion of national questions; and their rights tended always to increase, and to become hereditary, in fact, though not in law. In every important campaign of the Turkish armies, these descendants of the Bogomils were represented; they amassed considerable See also:wealth from the spoils of war, and frequently rose to high. military and administrative positions. Thus, in 1570, See also:Ali See also:Pasha, a native of Herzegovina, became See also:grand See also:vizier; and he was succeeded by the distinguished soldier and statesman, Mahomet Beg Sokolovic, a Bosnian. Below the feudal See also:nobility and their Moslem soldiers came the Christian serfs, tillers of the soil and taxpayers, whose lives and property were at the See also:mercy of their lords. The hardships of their See also:lot, and, above all, the system by which the strongest of their sons were carried off as recruits for the See also:corps of See also:janissaries (q.v.), frequently drove them to brigand-See also:age, and occasionally to open revolt. These conditions lasted until the 19th century, and meanwhile the country was involved in the See also:series of See also:wars waged by the See also:External Turks against Austria, Hungary and Venice. In the history Krajina and all along the Montenegrin frontier, 1328-1821. Moslems and Christians carried on a ceaseless feud,
irrespective of any treaties concluded by their rulers; while the Turkish See also:campaigns in Hungary provided See also:constant occupation for the nobles during a large partof the 16th and 17th centuries. But after the Ottoman defeat at Vienna in 1683, the situation changed. Instead of extending the foreign conquests of their sultan, the Bosnians were hard pressed to defend their own See also:borders. Zvornik fell before the Austro-Hungarian See also:army in 1688, and the Turkish vali, who wasby the establishment of Servian See also:autonomy under Moslem
rebellions.
See also:Karageorge. Many of the janissaries had married
and settled on the land, forming a strongly conservative and fanatical caste, friendly to the Moslem nobles, who now dreaded the curtailment of their own privileges. Their opportunity came in 1820, when the See also:Porte was striving to repress the insurrections in See also:Moldavia, See also:Albania and See also:Greece. A first Bosnian revolt was crushed in 1821; a second, due principally to the See also:massacre of the janissaries, was quelled with much bloodshed in 1827. After the Russo-Turkish War of 1828-29, a further attempt at reform was initiated by the sultan and his grand vizier, Reshid Pasha. Two years later came a most formidable outbreak; the sultan was denounced as false to Islam, and the Bosnian nobles gathered at Banjaluka, determined to See also: A See also:holy war was preached by their See also:leader, Hussein See also:Aga Berberli, a brilliant soldier and orator, who called himself Zmaj Bosanski, the " See also:Dragon of Bosnia," and was regarded by his followers as a See also:saint. The Moslems of Herzegovina, under Ali Pasha Rizvanbegovic, remained loyal to the Porte, but in Bosnia Hussein Aga encountered little resistance. At Kossovo he was reinforced by 20,000 Albanians, led by the See also:rebel Mustapha Pasha; and within a few weeks the united armies occupied the whole of See also:Bulgaria, and a large part of See also:Macedonia. Their career was checked by Reshid Pasha, who persuaded the two victorious commanders to intrigue against one another, secured the See also:division of their forces, and then fell upon each in turn. The rout of the Albanians at Prilipe and the See also:capture of Mustapha at See also:Scutari were followed by an invasion of Bosnia. After a desperate defence, Hussein Aga fled to See also:Esseg in Croatia-Slavonia; his appeal for See also:pardon was rejected, and in 1832 he was banished for See also:life to Tribizond. The power of the Bosnian nobles, though shaken by their defeat, remained unbroken; and they resisted vigorously when their kapetanates were abolished in 1837; and again when a measure 'of equality before the law was conceded to the Christians in 1839. In Herzegovina, Ali Pasha Rizvanbegovic reaped the See also:reward of his fidelity. He was left free to tyrannize over his Christian subjects, a king in all but name. In 1840 he descended from his mountain stronghold of Stolac to wage war upon the vladika See also:Peter II. of Montenegro, and simultaneously to suppress a Christian rising. Peace was arranged at Ragusa in 1842, and it was rumoured that Ali had concluded a See also:secret alliance with Montenegro, hoping to shake off the suzerainty of the sultan, and to found an entirely independent kingdom. It is impossible to verify this See also:charge, but during the troubled years that ensued, Ali pursued an elaborate policy of intrigue. He sent large bribes to influential persons at Constantinople; he aided the Turkish vali to repress the Christians, who had again revolted; and he supported the Bosnian nobles against reforms imposed by the vali. At last, in 185o, a Turkish army was despatched to restore quiet. Ali I For details of these events see See also:Umar See also:Effendi, History of the War in Bosnia (1737-1739), Translated by C. See also:Fraser (London, 1830). still officially styled the " vali of Hungary," removed his head-quarters from Banjaluka to Travnik, a more southerly, and therefore a safer capital. Two years later, the imperial troops reached Doinja Tuzla, and retired with 3000 Roman Catholic emigrants. Serajevo was burned in 1697 by See also:Eugene of See also:Savoy, who similarly deported 40,000 Christians. The treaties of Carlowitz (1699) and Passarowitz (1718) deprived the Turks of all the Primorje, or littoral of Herzegovina, except the narrow enclaves of Klek and Suttorina, left to sunder the Ragusan dominions from those of Venice. At the same time a strip of territory in northern Bosnia was ceded to Austria, which was thus able to See also:control both banks of the Save. This territory was restored to Turkey in 1739, at the peace of See also:Belgrade; l but in 1790 it was reoccupied by Austrian troops. Finally, in 1791, the treaty of See also:Sistova again fixed the line of the Save and Una as the Bosnian frontier. The reform of the Ottoman government contemplated by the sultan Mahmud II. (1808-1839) was bitterly resented in Bosnia, where Turkish See also:prestige had already been weakened Christian range east of Mostar, rose against the Turks. Within rising of 1875. a few weeks the whole country was involved. The Herzegovinians, under their leaders Peko Pavlovic, Socica, Ljubibratic, and others, held out for a year against all the forces that Turkey could despatch against them.' In See also:July 1876 Servia and Montenegro joined the struggle, and in See also:April 1877 See also:Russia declared war on the sultan. The Austro-Hungarian occupation, authorized on the 13th of July 1878 by the treaty of See also:Berlin (arts. 23 and 26), was not Austro- easily effected; and, owing to the difficulty of military Hungarian operations among the mountains, it was necessary to epa- employ a force of 200,000 men. Haji See also:Loja, the See also:Lion, native leader, was supported by a body of Albanians 1878-1908. and mutinous Turkish troops, while the whole Moslem population bitterly resented the proposed See also:change. The losses on both sides were very heavy, and, besides those who fell in See also:battle, many of the insurgents were executed under See also:martial law. But after a series of stubbornly contested engagements, the Austrian general, Philippovic, entered Serajevo on the 19th of See also:August, and ended the campaign on the loth of September, by the capture of Bihac in the north-west, and of Klobuk in Herzegovina. The government of the country was then handed over to the imperial See also:ministry of finance; but the bureaucratic methods of the finance ministers, See also:Baron von See also:Hoffmann and See also:Joseph de Szlavy, resulted only in the insurrection of 1881-82. Order was restored in See also:June 1882, when the See also:administration was entrusted to See also:Benjamin von See also:Kallay (q.v.), as imperial minister of finance. Kallay retained this position until his death on the 13th of July 1903, when he was succeeded by Baron See also:Stephan Burian de Rajecz. During this period life and property were rendered secure, and great progress was achieved, on the lines already indicated, in creating an efficient civil service, harmonizing Moslem law with new enactments, promoting commerce, carrying out important public works, and reorganizing the fiscal and educational systems. All classes I For the Christian See also:rebellion and its causes; see A. J. See also:Evans, Through Bosnia and Herzegovina on Foot (London, 1876) ; and W. J. See also:Stillman, Herzegovina and the Late Uprising (London, 1877).and See also:creeds were treated impartially; and, although the administration has been reproached alike for undue harshness and undue leniency, neither See also:accusation can be sustained. Critics have also urged that Kallay fostered the desire for material welfare at the cost of every other national ideal; that, despite his own popularity, he never secured the See also:goodwill of the people for Austria-Hungary; that he left the agrarian difficulty unsolved, and the hostile religious factions unreconciled. These charges are not wholly unfounded; but the chief social and political evils in Bosnia and Herzegovina may be traced to See also:historical causes operative long before the Austro-Hungarian occupation, and above all to the political ambition of the rival churches. Justly to estimate the work done by Kallay, it is only necessary to point to the contrast between Bosnia in 1882 and Bosnia in 1903; for in 21 years the anarchy and ruin entailed by four centuries of See also:misrule were transformed into a See also:condition of prosperity unsurpassed in south-eastern Europe. It was no doubt natural that Austrian statesmen should wish to end the anomalous situation created by the treaty of Berlin, by incorporating Bosnia and Herzegovina into the Dual Monarchy. The treaty had contemplated the Austrian evacuation of the occupied provinces after the restora- tion Lion. tion of order and prosperity; and this had been expressly stipulated in an agreement signed by the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman plenipotentiaries at Berlin, as a condition of Turkish assent to the provisions of the treaty. But the Turkish reform See also:movement of 1908 seemed to promise a revival of Ottoman power, which might in time have enabled the Turks to demand the promised evacuation, and thus to reap all the ultimate benefits of the Austrian administration. The reforms in Turkey certainly encouraged the Serb and Moslem inhabitants of the occupied territory to See also:petition the emperor for the grant of a constitution similar to that in force in the provinces of Austria proper. But the Austro-Hungarian government, profiting by the weakness of Russia after the war with See also:Japan, and aware that the See also:proclamation of Bulgarian independence was imminent, had already decided to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina, in spite of the pledges given at Berlin, and although the proposal was unpopular in Hungary. Its decision, after being communicated to the sovereigns of the powers signatory to the treaty of Berlin, in a series of autograph letters from the emperor See also:Francis Joseph, was made known to Bosnia and Herzegovina in an imperial rescript published on the 7th of See also:October 1908. The Serb and Moslem delegates, who had started on the same See also:day for See also:Budapest, to present their petition to the emperor, learned from the rescript that the government intended to concede to their compatriots " a share in the legislation and administration of provincial affairs, and equal protection for all religious beliefs, See also:languages and racial distinctions." The separate administration was, however, to be maintained, and the rescript did not promise that the new provincial See also:diet would be more than a consultative assembly, elected on a strictly limited See also:franchise. A. See also:Bordeaux, La Bosnie populaire (See also:Paris, 1904) for social life and mining. Much See also:information is also contained in the works by Lamouche, See also:Miller, See also:Thomson, Joanne, See also:Cambon, See also:Millet, Hamard and See also:Laveleye, cited under the heading BALKAN PENINSULA. See also B. Nikasinovic, Bosnien and See also:die Herzegovina unter der Verwaltung der osterreich-ungarischen Monarchic (Berlin, 1901, &c.), and M. Oransz, Auf dem Rade durch, Kroatien and Bosnien (Vienna, 1903). The best See also:map is that of the Austrian General See also:Staff. See also for geology, J. Cvijic, Morphologische and glaciale Studien aus Bosnien (Vienna, 1900) ; F. Katzer, Geologischer Ftihrer durch Bosnien and Herzegovina (Serajevo, 19o3); P. Ballif, Wasserbauten in Bosnien and Herzegovina (Vienna, 1896). See also:Sport: " Snaffle," In the Land of the Bartz (London,' 897). Agriculture and Commerce: annual See also:British consular reports, and the official Ergebnisse der Viehzahlungen. (1879 and 1895), and Landwirtschaft in Bosnien and Herzegovina (1899). The chief official publications are in German. For antiquities, see R. See also:Munro, Through Bosnia-Herzegovina and Dalmatia (See also:Edinburgh, Igloo); A. J. Evans, Illyrian Letters (London, 1878) ; W. Radimskj" Die Pasha openly professed himself a loyal subject, but secretly sent reinforcements to the rebel aristocracy. The Turks proved everywhere successful. After a cordial reception by their See also:commander Omer or See also:Omar Pasha, Ali was imprisoned; he was shortly afterwards assassinated, lest his lavish See also:bribery of Turkish officials should restore him to favour, and bring disgrace on his captor (March 1851). The downfall of the Moslem aristocracy resulted in an import-See also:ant administrative change: Serajevo, which had long been the commercial centre of the country, and the jealously guarded stronghold of the nobles, superseded Travnik as the official capital, and the See also:residence of the vali. A variety of other reforms, including the reorganization of Moslem education, were introduced by Omer Pasha, who governed the country until ,86o. But as the administration See also:grew stronger, the position of the peasantry became worse. They had now to satisfy the imperial tax-farmers and excisemen, as well as their feudal lords. The begs and agas continued to exact their forced labour and one-third of their produce; the central government imposed a tithe which had become an eighth by 1875. Three kinds of cattle-tax, the tax for exemption from military service, levied on every newborn male, forced labour on the roads, forced See also:loan of horses, a heavy See also:excise on grapes and tobacco, and a variety of lesser taxes combined to See also:burden the Christian serfs; but even more galling than the amount was the manner in which these dues were exacted—the extortionate assessments of tax-farmers and excisemen, the brutal See also:licence of the soldiery who were quartered on recalcitrant villagers. A crisis was precipitated by the example of Servian independence, the See also:hope of Austrian intervention, and the public See also:bankruptcy of Turkey. Sporadic insurrections had already broken out among the Bosnian Christians, and on the 1st of July 1875 the villagers of Nevesinje, which gives its name to a mountain Condition of the serfs. neolithische Station See also:van Butmir (Vienna 1895-1898) ; P. Ballif, Romische Strassen in Bosnien and Herzegovina {Vienna, 1893, &c.). No adequate history of Bosnia was published up to the 2oth century; but the chief materials for such a work are contained in the following books: A. Theiner, Vetera monumenta historica Hungariam sacram illustrantia (Rome, 186o) and Vetera monumenta Slavorum Meridionalium (i. Rome, 1863; 2 See also:Agram, 1875),–these are collections of Latin documents from the Vatican library; V. Makushev, Monumenta historica Slavorum Meridionalium (Belgrade, 1885) ; Y. Shafarik, Acta archivi Veneti spectantia ad historiam Serborum, &c. (Belgrade, 1860-1862) ; F. See also:Miklosich, Monumenta Serbica (Vienna, 1858). Other important authorities are G. Lucio, De Regno Dalmatiae et Croatiae (See also:Amsterdam, 1666) ; M. Orbini, Regno degli Slavi (See also:Pesaro 1601); D. Farlatus and others. Illyricum Sacrum (Venice, 1751–1819) ; C. du Fresne du Cange, Illyricum vetus et novum (1746) ; M. Simek Politische Geschichte See also:des Konigreiches Bosnien and Rama (Vienna, 1787). The best modern history, though valueless for the period after 1463; is by P. Coquelle, Histoire du Montenegro et de la Bosnie (Paris, 1895). See also V. Klaic, Geschichte Bosniens (See also:Leipzig 1884). J. Spalaikovitch (Spalajkovic), in La Bosnie et l'Herzegovine (Paris, 1897), give a See also:critical account of the Austro-Hungarian administration. (K. G. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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