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INDIAN MUTINY, THE
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See also:INDIAN See also:MUTINY, THE , the See also:great revolt of the See also:Bengal native See also:army in 18J7, which led to the transference of Indian See also:government from the See also:East See also:India See also:company to the See also:crown in 1858. The mediate cause of the Mutiny was the great disproportion between the See also:numbers of See also:British and native troops in India, which gave the sepoys an exaggerated notion of their See also:power; its immediate causes were a See also:series of circumstances which promoted active discontent with British See also:rule.
During the See also:century which elapsed between the victory a See also:Plassey and the outbreak at See also:Meerut, the East India company relied mainly on native troops with a stiffening of Disaffec•, British soldiers—especially See also:artillery—for the successful tfon in the conduct of its See also:wars. The warlike See also:Hindu and Mahom- Native medan races supplied excellent fighting material, when Army.
led by British See also:officers, and the See also:sepoy army took a distinguished See also:part in every Indian See also:battle, from See also:Assaye to See also:Gujarat. At the See also:close of See also:Lord See also:Dalhousie's See also:administration (1856) British India was held by some 233,000 native and some 45,000 British troops —roughly a proportion of 5 to 1. It was already clear to some of the men who knew India best that this was a dangerous See also:state of things, though when the Mutiny See also:broke out the relative numbers were 2J7,000 native to 36,000 British soldiers. It had See also:long been a fundamental principle of Indian government that the sepoy would always be true to his See also:salt—knowing, as See also:Macaulay wrote in 184o, that there was not another state in India which would not, in spite of the most See also:solemn promises, leave him to See also:die of See also:hunger in a ditch as soon as he had ceased to be useful. But the See also:history of the sepoy army might have shown that this was an over-estimate of its See also:loyalty. As See also:early as 1764 it was necessary to See also:stamp out mutiny by blowing See also:thirty sepoys away from guns. In 1806 the See also:family of Tippoo See also:Sultan produced a dangerous mutiny at See also:Vellore, which was nipped in the bud by the prompt See also:action of See also:Gillespie and his dragoons. In 1824 the 47th Bengal See also:infantry refused to See also: In 1844, after the disasters of the Afghan See also:war had shaken the See also:prestige of British arms in India, no less than seven native regiments broke into open mutiny over grievances both real and fancied; and this See also:time the old stern See also:measures were not adopted to stamp out military disobedience. Lord See also:Ellenborough often said that a See also:general mutiny of the native army was the only real danger with which the British See also:empire in India was threatened, and his warning was solemnly repeated by See also:Sir See also: See also:Chief among these was Dalhousie's policy of See also:annexation, which brought under British dominion such small states as See also:Satara, See also:Nagpur and See also:Jhansi, and finally the See also:kingdom of Oudh. The insistence on the right of See also:lapse, i.e. the refusal to allow an adopted son to inherit a native See also:throne, and the See also:threat of annexation on purely humanitarian grounds seriously alarmed the native princes of India, besides creating a class of malcontents, among whom the Nana See also:Sahib, the adopted See also:heir of the See also:peshwa, made himself most infamous. The annexation of Oudh, which was the chief recruiting ground of the Bengal army, probably caused wider disaffection in the ranks of that army than any other See also:act or omission of the government. There can also be little doubt that the social reforms of Lord Dalhousie and his predecessors had disturbed men's minds in Bengal. Thus the Brahmans were offended at the See also:prohibition of See also:suttee and See also:female See also:infanticide, the See also:execution of Brahmans for See also:capital offences, the re-See also:marriage of widows, the spread of missionary effort and the extension of Western See also:education. The See also:Mahommedan zemindars were injured by the reassessment of the land See also:revenue, which was carried through in the interests of the ryots, and the power of the zemindars was formidable, while that of the ryots was negligible; though it must be remembered that the peasantry as a whole gave no assistance to the mutineers. To all these causes must be added—not least important in dealing with orientals—the widespread feeling since the Afghan disaster that the See also:star of the company was in the descendant, and that there was truth in the old prophecy that the British would rule in India for a See also:bare century from Plassey (1757). See also:Bazaar rumours of British reverses in the See also:Crimea and in Persia in-creased the temptations for a general rising against the dominant See also:race. To this See also:accumulation of inflammatory materials a spark was put in 1857 by an act of almost incredible folly on the part of the military authorities in India. The introduction The of the See also:rifle, with its greased cartridges, was greased cartridges, accompanied by no See also:consideration of the religious preju- dices of the Bengal sepoys, to whom, whether See also:Hindus or Mahommedans, the See also:fat of cows and pigs was See also:anathema. It was easy for See also:agitators to persuade the sepoys that the new cartridges were greased with the fat of animals sacred to one creed or forbidden to another, and that the British government was thus engaged in a deep-laid See also:plot for forcing them to become Christians by first making them outcasts from their own religions. The growth of missionary enterprise in India See also:lent See also:colour to this theory, which was supported by the fact that no precautions had been taken to grease the Indian cartridges with a neutral fat, such as that of See also:sheep and goats. The researches of Mr
G. W. See also:Forrest in the Indian government records have shown
that the sepoys' fears of defilement by biting the new cartridges
had a considerable See also:foundation in fact. At a See also:court-See also:martial
in 1857 See also:Colonel See also:Abbott, inspector general of See also:ordnance, gave
See also:evidence that " the See also:tallow might or might not have contained
the fat of cows." No attempt, in fact, had been made to exclude
the fat of cows and pigs, and apparehtly no one had realized
that a See also:gross See also:outrage was thus being perpetrated on the religious
feelings of both Hindu and Mahommedan sepoys. The See also:low-
caste natives employed in the arsenals knew what grease was
actually being employed, and taunted the See also:Brahman sepoys
with the loss of caste that would follow their use of the new cartridges. Refusals to accept the suspected cartridges were soon heard in the Bengal army. The numerous agitators who had their own reasons for fomenting mutiny See also:rose to the occasion, and in the first months of 1857 the greater part of the Bengal See also:presidency was seething with See also:sedition. At this time took See also:place the mysterious See also:distribution of chapatis, small cakes of unleavened See also:bread, which had previously been known in connexion with the mutiny at Vellore (18o6). "From See also:village to village, from See also:district to district, through See also: The See also:absence of any European troops made it impossible to See also:deal with this act of mutiny on the spot. The defaulting See also:regiment was marched down to Barrackpur for See also:punishment. On the 29th of March, two days before its arrival, a sepoy named Manghal Pandi, from whom the mutineers afterwards came to be spoken of as " Pandies," drunk with See also:bhang and See also:enthusiasm, attempted to provoke a mutiny in the 34th Bengal infantry, and shot the See also:adjutant, but Hearsey's See also:personal courage suppressed the danger. Two days later the 19th were publicly disbanded, but no further punishment was attempted. This was partly due to Lord See also:Canning's personal inclination to See also:temper See also:justice with See also:mercy, but partly also to the fact that there was no adequate European force at See also:hand to execute a severer See also:sentence.' Bengal had been recklessly depleted of See also: Nevertheless, 85 men of the native cavalry regiment, driven to despair by the persistent rumours of the danger to their caste, refused on the 24th of See also:April to accept their cartridges. For this offence they were condemned to ten years' imprisonment with hard labour on the roads, and on the 9th of May they were publicly stripped of their See also:uniforms and marched off to See also:gaol. The next See also:day was a See also:Sunday; and in the evening, whilst the British troops were parading for See also: Most of the British officers and residents were massacred then or afterwards. The great See also:magazine was gallantly defended for a time by nine Britons under See also:Lieutenant See also:Willoughby, and was blown up by them when all See also:hope of See also:relief had vanished. A See also:young See also:telegraph clerk sent the news to Umballa, continuing to signal until he was cut down at his See also:post. Before the authorities in Calcutta and See also:Lahore could take any steps to deal with the long-prophesied danger, the whole of the North-See also:West Provinces were in revolt. Fortunately the two men on whom the chief responsibility See also:fell in this great crisis were equal to their task. Canning in Calcutta, See also: He telegraphed for reliefs from every available quarter, fortunately being able to divert the troops then on their way to See also:China. The native armies of Bombay and See also:Madras remained loyal, and the former in particular—thanks to Lord See also:Elphinstone—furnished valuable reinforcements. Sir See also:Colin See also: On the 14th of See also:September, after three days of artillery preparation, the assault was delivered, under Nicholson's leadership. Two practicable breaches had been made by the siege guns, and a party of See also:engineers under See also:Home and Salkeld blew in the See also:Kashmir See also:gate. The assault was successful, in so far as a See also:firm lodgment was made in the city, though the loss of Nicholson was a heavy See also:price to pay for this success. Wilson actually thought of retreating; but Baird Smith and Chamberlain insisted on perseverance, and the city was captured after six days' hard fighting. The mutineers were completely cowed; the king of Delhi was taken and reserved for trial; and his sons were shot by Catain See also:Hodson, after unconditional surrender, an act which has since been the theme of much reprobation, but which commended itself at the time to Hodson's comrades as See also:wise and justifiable. The siege of Delhi, which was the turning-point of the Mutiny, had lasted for more than three months, during which thirty See also:minor actions had been fought in the almost intolerable See also:heat of the Indian midsummer. The stern determination of the British troops, which alone made possible the reduction of Delhi with so inadequate a force, was intensified, if possible, by the ghastly See also:story of See also:Cawnpore. That important military station, lying The Z See also:Mass-~ See also:acre on the See also:Ganges on the confines of Oudh, was under cawnpore. the command of Sir See also:Hugh See also:Wheeler, an old but still efficient and experienced officer. It was garrisoned by about 3000 native troops, with a mere handful of white soldiers. When the news of the Meerut outbreak reached Wheeler, who had already noted many symptoms of disaffection in his own station, he was placed in a very difficult position. Under his care was a large See also:body of non-combatants—See also:women and See also:children in great numbers among them. To occupy the one defensible position in the station, the magazine by the See also:river with its vast military stores and its substantial See also:masonry walls, would have involved steps which Wheeler regarded as certain to precipitate an out: break. It was then thought that, if the sepoys mutinied, they would march off to Delhi, and Wheeler contented himself by throwing up a See also:rude entrenchment round the See also:hospital See also:barracks, where he thought that the Europeans would be safe during the first tumult of a rising. All might have fallen out as he anticipated, had it not been that the Nana Sahib, the adopted heir of the See also:late peshwa, was rajah of See also:Bithur in the neighbourhood. This young Mahratta, since known to universal execration as the See also:arch-villain of the Mutiny, was secretly burning with a sense of injury received from the Indian government. He was also ambitious; and when, on the 4th of June, the Cawnpore garrison The Revolt of Delhi. broke into open mutiny, he prevailed on them to stay and help as the See also:weeks dragged by and no sign of relief appeared. On the him to carve a new kingdom out of the company's territory, instead of throwing in their See also:lot with the Delhi empire. From the 6th to the 27th of June the handful of British soldiers, who composed the garrison of a fortification that could not have resisted a serious assault fora single hour, held out with the greatest gallantry in hope of relief. When this hope had died away, they surrendered to the Nana on his solemn promise that all their lives should be spared and that they should have a safe conduct to See also:Allahabad. The Nana, partly urged by his native See also:cruelty, partly, no doubt, by the wish to commit his followers beyond all possibility of See also:composition, massacred the entire garrison in the boats which should have taken it down the river, reserving only some two See also:hundred women and children for a later See also:death. These poor victims were confined in a See also:house known as the Bibigarh. On the 15th of July, when See also:Havelock's avenging army was within a march of Cawnpore, they were all hacked to death and their bodies—some still faintly breathing—were thrown down the adjacent well which is to-day one of the most famous monuments of British rule in India. No single act of the Mutiny elicited such a See also:storm of fierce anger among the British, both those who were fighting in India and those who supported them at home; for none was a more terrible vengeance taken, though the Nana himself escaped from his pursuers. Meanwhile Lucknow, the capital of Oudh, was the See also:scene of a historic defence. It was the headquarters of Sir Henry Lawrence, one of the most far-seeing of Indian states-The men, who was well aware of the mutinous state of Defence . the native army. On the 18th of April he warned Lucknow. uow Lord Canning of some manifestations of discontent, and asked permission to See also:transfer certain mutinous See also:corps to another province. On the 1st of May the 7th Oudh infantry refused to bite the See also:cartridge, but on the 3rd they were disarmed by other regiments. When the news of the outbreak at Meerut reached Lucknow, Sir Henry Lawrence recognized the gravity of the crisis and summoned from their homes two bodies of pensioners, one of sepoys and one of artillerymen, to whose loyalty, and to that of the Sikh sepoys, the successful defence of the residency was largely due. This position was immediately fortified. On the 3oth of May the native troops broke into mutiny. On the 4th of June there was a mutiny at See also:Sitapur, a large and important station 51 M. from Lucknow. This was followed by another at See also:Fyzabad, one of the most important cities in the province, and outbreaks at Daryabad, See also:Sultanpur and See also:Salon. Thus in the course of ten days See also:English authority in Oudh practically vanished. On the 3oth of June Sir Henry Lawrence ordered a See also:reconnaissance in force from Lucknow, which met the enemy at Chinhat; but the native sepoys and artillerymen turned traitors, and Sir Henry was forced to See also:retreat to the residency, where the siege now began. The first attack was repulsed on the 1st of July, when the See also:separate position of the Machchhi Bhawan was evacuated, and all the troops concentrated in the residency. The entrenchments surrounding this See also:building covered some 6o acres of ground, and included a number of detached houses and buildings, knit together by ditches and stockades. In a military sense the position was indefensible. The garrison consisted of 1720 fighting men, of whom 712 were native troops, 153 civilian See also:volunteers, and the See also:remainder were British officers and men. This small force had to defend 1280 non-combatants. At the very beginning of the siege Sir Henry Lawrence was fatally wounded by a See also:shell, and died on the 4th of July, thus depriving the defence of its guiding spirit. The command then See also:developed upon General See also:Inglis, who met the incessant attacks of the enemy with See also:counter-sorties. On the 21st of July news was received that General Havelock was advancing, had defeated the Nana, and was See also:master of Cawnpore; but it was still more than two months before even the first relief of Lucknow was .achieved. During those two months every See also:device was employed, by See also:direct assault and by See also:mining operations, to reduce the garrison, who held out nobly, See also:meeting assault with sortie and mine with counter-mine. But the loyalty of the native troops began to waver xlv. 1523rd of September, however, the See also:sound of distant guns in the direction of Cawnpore was heard, and on the 25th General Havelock's relieving force entered Lucknow. During the 87 days of the siege the strength of the garrison had diminished to 982, and many of these were sick and wounded. Against these were arrayed six thousand trained soldiers and a vast See also:host of undisciplined See also:rabble. For nearly three months their heavy guns and musketry had poured an unceasing See also:fire into the residency entrenchment from a distance of only 50 yds. During the whole time the British See also:flag flew defiantly on the roof of the residency. The history of the See also:world's sieges contains no more brilliant See also:episode. On the 5th of June the troops at See also:Benares mutinied, but were disarmed by See also:Neill; and on the 6th of June the 6th native infantry at Allahabad mutinied and shot down their officers, but the fort was held until the arrival of jrst Neill, who promptly restored order. On the 3oth Lucknow. of Lf of cJune Sir Henry Havelock, who had been appointed to the command of the relieving See also:column, arrived at Allahabad from Calcutta, and on the 7th of July he set out for the relief of Lucknow. His force consisted of some two thousand men all told, of whom three-quarters were British. On the 12th of July he fought the action of See also:Fatehpur, and gained his first victory, though the irregular cavalry misbehaved and were subsequently disarmed. On the 15th the village of Aong was captured, and on the 16th the Nana's force was utterly shattered in the battle of Cawnpore. In nine days Havelock had marched 126 m. and fought three general actions under a broiling See also:sun in the hottest See also:season of the See also:year; but the women and children whom it had been his See also:object to See also:save had already been massacred. Leaving Neill in command at Cawnpore, Havelock started out again on the 29th of July with ten See also:light guns and 1500 men in the desperate attempt to relieve Lucknow, which was 53 M. away. On the 29th he gained two victories at See also:Unao and Busherutgunge, but considering himself too weak to advance, he fell back two See also:marches upon Mangalwar. This decision was badly received by his troops, who were burning to avenge their See also:country-women, and by General Neill, whom Havelock was obliged to reprimand for insubordination. Being slightly reinforced, he advanced on the 5th of August, and again turned the enemy out of Busherutgunge, but was again obliged by cholera to retreat to Mangalwar; and on See also:receipt of news from Neill that the enemy were assembling at Bithur, he returned to Cawnpore, and abandoned for the time the attempt to relieve Lucknow. On the 16th of August he defeated the mutineers at Bithur. At this point General Havelock was joined by Sir See also: Upon the fall of Delhi the troops before that city were freed for the operations in Oudh, and on the 24th of September a column of 2790 men under Colonel Greathed left Delhi. On the 29th a successful action was fought at See also:Bulandshahr, and on the loth of See also:October the column reached See also:Agra. Here they were surprised by the enemy, but drove them off with considerable loss. On the 14th of October the column left Agra under Colonel Hope See also: November; but the success of the operations was marred by the death of Havelock. On his return to Cawnpore Campbell found that General See also:Windham was being attacked at that place by the See also:Gwalior contingent. On the 6th of See also:December he defeated the Gwalior contingent in the battle of Cawnpore, though he had only 5000 men against the enemy's 25,000. His next task was to clear his See also:line of communications with Delhi and the Punjab, and this he accordingly undertook. Lord Canning now decided that the next step should be the reduction of Lucknow, on the ground that it, like Delhi, was a rallying point of the Mutiny, and that its continuance in the hands of the enemy would mean a loss of prestige. General See also:Franks' column advanced to Lucknow from the eastern frontier of Oudh, defeating the enemy in four actions. Meanwhile Outram had held his own at the Alam Bagh for over three months with only 4000 men against 120,000 rebels. An offer of help from See also:Nepal had been accepted in July, and now See also:Jung Bahadur, the See also:prime See also:minister of Nepal, was advancing with 10,000 Gurkhas to aid in the operations againt Lucknow; but the lateness of his arrival delayed the opening of the siege until the 2nd of March 1858. The Martiniere was captured on the 9th oLMarch and the Begum Kothi on the 11th. On the 14th the Imambara was stormed, and the Kaisar Bagh, and on the 16th the residency was once more in British See also:possession. The enemy were thoroughly routed, but Campbell lost the opportunity of pushing the victory home by forbidding Outram to See also:cross the See also:bridge in pursuit if he thought he would lose a " single man,".and by sending the cavalry away from the environs of the city at the See also:critical moment. Upon the fall of Lucknow Lord Canning's Oudh See also:proclamation was issued, confiscating almost the entire lands of the province, and ensuring only their lives to those rebels who should submit at once. Outram considered the terms of this proclamation dangerously severe, and Lord Ellenborough, See also:president of the See also:board of See also:control, thus criticized it in a hasty despatch, the publication of which necessitated his own resignation. It was afterwards acknowledged that the Oudh proclamation, interpreted as Canning meant it should be, was a wise piece of statesmanship. After the fall of Lucknow Canning insisted that Sir Colin Campbell should take immediate action against the rebels in Oudh and See also:Rohilkhand, and a number of See also:petty and harassingoperations were carried out by detached columns; but Campbell moved too slowly to bring his See also:guerrilla opponents to See also:book, and the See also:rebellion was really brought to a conclusion by Sir Hugh Rose's brilliant See also:campaign in Central India. Though the two great princes of Central India, Sindhia and See also:Holkar, wisely and fortunately -remained true to the British, troops belonging to both of them joined the mutineers. The The Gwalior contingent of Sindhia's army mutinied in central the middle of June, and on the 1st of July Holkar's India troops revolted at See also:Indore, and the See also:resident, Henry Campaign. See also:Durand, was forced to leave the residency. The rani of Jhansi also rose in rebellion, to become known as " the best man upon the side of the enemy." The rising in this quarter received little See also:attention until January 1858, when Sir Hugh Rose was given the command of two brigades, to act in See also:concert with Sir Colin Campbell, and he immediately began a campaign which for celerity and effectiveness has rarely been equalled in India. His principle was to go straight for the enemy wherever he found him, and pursue him until he had exterminated him. He was hampered by none of that exaggerated respect for the rebels which earned Sir Colin Campbell the See also:nickname of Old Khabardhar (Old Take-Care); but carried to an extreme the policy of audacity. Advancing from Bombay Sir Hugh Rose relieved See also:Saugor on the 3rd of February, after it had been invested by the rebels for up-wards of seven months. On the 3rd of March he forced the pass of Madanpur, and took the whole of the enemy's defences in See also:rear, throwing them into panic. On the 21st he began the siege of Jhansi, the stronghold of the mutineers in Central India, with a garrison of 11,000 men. During the course of the siege Tantia Topi, the most capable native See also:leader of the Mutiny, arrived with a fresh force of 20,000 men, and threatened the British See also:camp; but Sir Hugh Rose, with a boldness which only success could justify, divided his force, and while still maintaining the siege of the fort, attacked Tantia Topi with only 1500 men and completely routed him. This victory was won on the 1st of April, and two days later Sir Hugh carried Jhansi by assault. On the 1st of May the battle of Kunch was fought and won in a temperature of 110° in the shade, many of the combatants on both sides being struck down by heat See also:apoplexy. On the 22nd of May the battle of See also:Kalpi was won, though the European troops were hampered by defective See also:ammunition and Sir Hugh himself here received his fifth See also:sunstroke. In five months he had beaten the enemy in thirteen general actions and sieges, and had captured some of the strongest forts in India. News now arrived that the See also:rebel army under Tantia Topi and the rani of Jhansi had attacked Sindhia, whose troops had gone over to the rebels and delivered Gwalior into their hands. Sir Hugh marched against Gwalior at once, captured the See also:Morar cantonments on the 16th of June, and carried the whole of the Gwalior positions by assault on the 19th, thus restoring his state to Sindhia within ten days of taking the field. This was the crowning stroke of the Central India campaign, and practically put an end to the Mutiny, though the work of stamping out its embers went on for many months, and was only completed with the capture and execution of Tantia Topi in April 1859. The Indian Mutiny was in no sense a See also:national rising. The great mass of the people in the affected districts either stood neutral, waiting with the immemorial See also:patience of the East to accept the yoke of the conqueror, or helped the na Not ta atlonat British troops with See also:food and service, in many cases rising. also sheltering British fugitives to the best of their ability. The attempt to throw off the British yoke was confined to a few disaffected ex-rulers and their heirs, with their numerous clansmen and hangers-on, besides the badmashes and See also:highway-men who saw their way to profit by the removal of the British administration under which their See also:peculiar talents found no safe outlet. The Bengal native army was their See also:tool, which circumstances put into their hands at the psychological moment when British power seemed to be at its lowest point. But the fighting races of the Punjab saw no See also:reason for casting in their lot with the mutineers, and the great majority of the independent princes who had nothing of which to complain, like Patiala in the Punjab, Holkar and Sindhia in central India, preserved a loyal or at least an interested friendship. The Sikhs showed their appreciation of Lawrence's admirable administration by keeping faith with their See also:recent conquerors, and the Gurkhas of Nepal did See also:yeoman service for their fathers' enemies. The lack of any central principle or See also:common See also:interest was shown in the divided counsels and sporadic action of the mutineers and their allies, which made them an easy See also:prey to the solid and audacious British forces. The chief result of the Indian Mutiny was to end the govern- ment of India by the East India company. It was See also:felt that a system of administration which could permit such a The result See also:catastrophe was no longer desirable. On the and of of the Mutiny. August 1858 the See also:queen signed the act which transferred the government of India to the crown. On the 1st of November Lord Canning, now See also:viceroy of India, published the See also:noble proclamation in which the See also:change was announced, and a full See also:amnesty was offered to all the rebels who had not been leaders in the revolt or were not guilty of the See also:murder of British subjects. Even before the fall of Delhi, Canning had been adversely criticized—" Clemency Canning " he was scornfully called—for announcing his intention to discriminate between the See also:guilt of various classes of mutineers. But a wiser view soon prevailed, and the natives of India at large gratefully accepted the queen's proclamation as the See also:charter of their lives and liberties. See G. W. Forrest, History of the Indian Mutiny (1904), and Selections from State Papers (1897); T. R. E. See also:Holmes, History of the Indian Mutiny (1898); See also:Kaye and See also:Malleson's History of the Indian Mutiny (1864-1888) ; R. S. Rait, See also:Life of Lord See also:Gough (1903) ; Sir W. See also: Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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