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BALFE, MICHAEL WILLIAM (1808-1870)
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See also:BALFE, See also:MICHAEL See also: During this See also:time he married Mdlle Luisa Roser, a Hungarian singer whom he had met at See also:Bergamo. See also:Fetis says that the public indignation roused by an See also:attempt at " improving " See also:Meyerbeer's opera Il Crociato by interpolated See also:music of his own compelled Balfe to throw up his engagement at the See also:theatre La Fenice in See also:Venice. By this time he had produced his first See also:complete opera, I Rivali di se stessi, at See also:Palermo in the See also:carnival See also:season of 1829–1830; the opera Un Avvertimento ai gelosi at See also:Pavia; and Enrico See also:Quarto at See also:Milan, where he had been engaged to sing with See also:Malibran at the Scala. He returned to See also:England in the See also:spring of 1833, and on the 29th of See also:October 1835 his See also:Siege of Rochelle was produced and rapturously received at Drury Lane. Encouraged by his success, he produced The Maid of See also:Artois on the 27th of May 1836—the success of the opera being confirmed by the exquisite singing of Malibran. Balfe was a prolific composer, as may be seen from the following imperfect See also:list of his See also:English operas alone ge of Rochelle (1835); The Maid of Artois (1836); See also:Catherine See also:Grey (1837); See also:Joan of Arc (1837); Falstaff (1838, See also:Lablache in See also:title-role); Amelia, or the Love Test (1838); Keolanthe (1841); The Bohemian Girl, his best known work (1844); The Daughter of St. See also:Mark (1844); The Enchantress (1845); The Bondman (1846); The See also:Devil's in it (1847); The Maid of See also:Honour (1847); The Sicilian See also:Bride (1852); The See also:Rose of See also:Castile (1857); Satanella (1858); Bianca (1860); The Puritan's Daughter (1861) ; The Armourer of See also:Nantes (1863); See also:Blanche de See also:Nevers (1863). Balfe also wrote several operas for the Opera Comique and See also:Grand Opera in Paris, where MM. See also:Scribe and St See also:George provided him with the libretti for his LePuits d'amour (1843) and his See also:Les Quatre Fils Aymon (1844). His L'Etoile de See also:Seville was written in 1845 for the Academie Royale. The fact that Balfe was an Irishman, who produced operas in English, See also:French and Italian with conspicuous success, is in itself interesting. When to this we add the See also:record of his operatic impersonations on the See also:stage, the See also:European success of his Bohemian Girl, his picturesque retirement into See also:Hertfordshire in 1864 as a See also:gentleman See also:farmer, and above all the undeniable See also:gift for creating such pure melodies as his songs "When other See also:Hearts" and "I dreamt that I dwelt in See also:marble halls," it is idle to refuse him a prominent See also:place in the See also:history of music. He wrote much that was trivial, but also much that was enduring. He died on the loth of October 1870, and was buried at Kensal See also:Green. In 1882 a medallion portrait of him was unveiled in See also:Westminster See also:Abbey.
See also:BALFOUR, See also:ARTHUR See also: He was thought to ,be merely amusing himself with politics. It was regarded as doubtful whether his See also:health could withstand the severity of English winters, and the delicacy of his physique and the languor of his manner helped to create the impression that, however See also:great his intellectual See also:powers might be, he had neither the bodily strength nor the See also:energy of See also:character requisite for a political career. He was the " See also:odd See also:man " of the Fourth Party, apparently content to fetch and carry for his colleagues, and was believed to have no definite ambitions of his own. His reputation in the See also:parliament of 188o-1886 was that of a See also:dilettante, who allied himself with the three politicians already named from a feeling of irresponsibility rather than of See also:earnest purpose; he was regarded as one who, on the rare occasions when•he spoke, was more desirous to impart an See also:academic quality to his speeches than to make any solid contribution to public questions. The See also:House, indeed, did not take him quite seriously. Members did not suspect the reserve of strength and ability beneath what seemed to them to be the pose of a parliamentary fldneur; they looked upon him merely as a young member of the governing classes who remained in the House because it was the proper thing for a man of See also:family to do. As a member of the coterie known as the " Souls " he was, so to speak, See also:caviare to the general. Indolence was supposed to be the keynote of his character—a refined indolence, not, however, without cleverness of a somewhat cynical and See also:superior See also:order. That these views were not shared by Lord Salisbury was sufficiently shown by the fact that in his first See also:administration (See also:June 1885-See also:January 1886) he made Mr Balfour See also:president of the See also:Local Government See also:Board, and in forming his second administration (July 1886) secretary for See also:Scotland with a seat in the See also:cabinet. These offices gave few opportunities for distinction, and may be regarded merely as Mr Balfour's See also:apprenticeship to departmental responsibilities. The accidents of political See also:life suddenly opened out to him a career which made him, next to Lord Salisbury, the most prominent, the most admired and the most attacked Conservative politician of the See also:day. Sir Michael See also:Hicks-See also:Beach, who was See also:chief secretary for See also:Ireland, suffered from an See also:affection of the eyes and found it desirable to resign, and Lord Salisbury appointed his See also:nephew in his See also:stead. The selection took the political world by surprise, and was much criticized. By the Irish Nationalists it was received with contemptuous ridicule, for none suspected Mr Balfour's immense strength of will, his debating See also:power, his ability in attack and his still greater capacity to disregard See also:criticism. The debates on the Crimes See also:Bill and the Irish See also:Land Bill quickly undeceived them, and the steady and even remorseless vigour with which the government of Ireland was conducted speedily convinced the House of See also:Commons and the See also:country that Mr. Balfour was in his right place as chief secretary. His policy was that of " See also:coercion "—the fearless administration of the Crimes See also:Act,—coupled with remedial legislation; and he enforced the one while he proceeded with the other, regardless of the See also:risk of out-rage outside the House and of insult within. Mr Balfour's work in this See also:office covered one of the most turbulent and most exciting periods in See also:modern parliamentary history and Irish administration. With a courage that never faltered he See also:broke down the See also:Plan of See also:Campaign in Ireland, and in parliament he not only withstood the assaults of the Irish Nationalists, but waged successful warfare with the entire See also:Home See also:Rule party. He combined an obstinacy of will with a mastery of facts unsurpassed by any of his predecessors in the secretaryship. Events, it is true, were in his favour. The disclosures before the See also:Parnell See also:Commission, the O'Shea divorceproceedings, the downfall of Mr Parnell and the disruption of the Irish party, assisted him in his task; but the fact remains that by persistent courage and undeviating thoroughness he reduced See also:crime in Ireland to a vanishing point. His work was also constructive, for he broadened the basis of material prosperity and social progress by creating the Congested Districts Board in 189o. During this See also:period, from 1886-1892, moreover, he See also:developed gifts of See also:oratory which made him one of the most effective of public speakers. Impressive in See also:matter rather than in manner of delivery, and seldom rising to the level of eloquence in the sense in which that quality was understood in a House which had listened to See also:Bright and See also:Gladstone, his speeches were logical and convincing, and their attractive literary See also:form delighted a wider See also:audience than that which listens to the See also:mere politician.
In 1888 Mr Balfour served on the See also:Gold and See also:Silver Commission, currency problems from the standpoint of See also:bimetallism being among the more academic subjects which had engaged his See also:attention. On the death of Mr W. H. See also: During the illness of Lord Salisbury in 1898, and again in Lord Salisbury's See also:absence abroad, he was in See also:charge of the foreign office, and it fell to his See also:lot to conduct the very See also:critical negotiations with See also:Russia on the question of See also:railways in See also:North See also:China. To his firmness, and at the same time to the conciliatory readiness with which he accepted and elaborated the principles of a modus vivendi, the two powers owed the avoidance of what threatened to be a dangerous See also:quarrel. As a member of the cabinet responsible for the See also:Transvaal negotiations in 1899 he See also:bore his full share of controversy, and when the See also:war opened so disastrously he was the first to realize the See also:necessity for putting the full military strength of the country into the See also: Mr G. See also:Wyndham as chief secretary for Ireland was included in the cabinet; Lord See also:Selborne remained at the See also:admiralty, Mr St John Brodrick (afterwards Lord See also:Midleton) war minister, Lord George See also: Mr Ritchie's remission of the See also:shilling import-duty on See also:corn led to Mr Chamberlain's crusade in favour of See also:tariff reform and colonial preference, and as the session proceeded the rift See also:grew in the Unionist ranks. In the See also:separate See also:article on Mr Chamberlain the progress of this movement is sufficiently narrated. From this moment it is only necessary here to realize Mr Balfour's position. He had always admitted the onesidedness of the English See also:free-trade system, and had supported the desirability of retaliating against unfair competition and " dumping " by foreign countries. But Mr Chamberlain's new programme for a general tariff, with new taxes on See also:food arranged so as to give a preference to colonial products, involved a See also:radical alteration of the established fiscal system, and such out-and-out Unionist free-traders in the cabinetas Mr Ritchie and Lord George Hamilton, and outside it, like Lord See also:Hugh Cecil and Mr Arthur Elliot (secretary to the treasury), were entirely opposed to this. Mr Balfour was anxious to avoid a rupture, doubtful of the feeling of the country, uncertain of the details by which Mr Chamberlain's scheme could be worked out. As leader of the party and responsible for the See also:maintenance of so great a political See also:engine, he was anxious not to be precipitate. He was neither for nor against the new movement, and professed to hold " no settled convictions " on the subject. Mr Chamberlain rested his See also:case largely on the alleged diminution in British trade, and the See also:statistics therefore required investigation before the government could adopt any such programme. From the See also:middle of May, when Mr Chamberlain began to See also:press the matter, Mr Balfour had a difficult See also:hand to See also:play, so long as it was uncertain how the party would follow the new See also:lead. The Board of Trade was asked to See also:supply full figures, and while its See also:report was awaited the uncertainty of attitude on the part of the government afforded grateful opportunity for opposition See also:mischief-making, since the Liberal party had now the See also:chance of acting as the conservative champions of orthodox See also:economics. Another opportunity for making political capital was provided by the publication of the report of the royal commission on the See also:Boer War under Lord See also:Elgin's chairmanship, which horrified the country by its disclosures (See also:August 26th) as to the political and military muddling which had gone on, and the want of any efficient system of organization. The session ended in August without any definite See also:action on the fiscal question, but in the cabinet the discussions continued. On the 16th of See also:September Mr Balfour published a pamphlet on " Insular Free Trade," and on the 18th it was announced that Lord George Hamilton and Mr Ritchie had resigned, Lord Balfour of Burleigh and Mr Arthur Elliot following a day or two later. These were the strait free-traders, but at the same time Mr Chamberlain resigned also. The See also:correspondence between Mr Chamberlain and Mr Balfour (September 9th and 16th) was published, and presented the latter in the See also:light of a sympathizer with some form of fiscal See also:union with the colonies, if practicable, and in favour of retaliatory duties, but unable to believe that the country was yet ready to agree to the taxation of food required for a preferential tariff, and therefore unwilling to support that scheme; at the same time he encouraged Mr Chamberlain to test the feeling of the public and to convert them by his missionary efforts outside the government. Mr Chamberlain on his See also:side emphasized his own parliamentary See also:loyalty to Mr Balfour. In his pamphlet on " Insular Free Trade " the prime minister reviewed the economic history since See also:Cobden's time, pointed to the falsification of the promises of the early free-traders, and to the fact that England was still the only free-importing country, and insisted that he was " in See also:harmony with the true spirit of free-trade " when he pleaded for " freedom to negotiate that freedom of See also:exchange may be increased." This manifesto was at first taken, not only as the See also:platform of the government, but also as that from which its resigning free-trade members had dissented; and the country was puzzled by a statement from Lord George Hamilton that Mr Balfour had circulated among his colleagues a second and different document, in See also:fuller agreement with Mr Chamberlain. The situation was confused by See also:personal suspicion and distrust as well as by economic difficulties. But the public noted that the duke of Devonshire, whose orthodoxy was considered typical, remained in the cabinet. The crisis, however, soon developed further, owing to explanations between the free-trade Unionists. On October 1st Mr Balfour spoke at See also:Sheffield, reiterating his views as to free-trade and See also:retaliation, insisting that he " intended to lead," and declaring that he was prepared at all events to See also:reverse the traditional fiscal policy by doing away with the See also:axiom that import duties should only be levied for See also:revenue purposes. The speech was enthusiastically received by the See also:National Union of Conservative Associations, who had year by year flirted with protectionist resolutions, and who were known to be predominantly in sympathy with Mr Chamberlain. But the free-traders did not like Mr Balfour's See also:formula as to See also:reversing the traditional fiscal policy of import taxes for revenue only. Next day the duke of Devonshire resigned, a step somewhat bitterly resented by Mr Balfour, who clearly thought that his sacrifices in order to conciliate the duke had now been made in vain. During this critical fortnight the duke had apparently acquiesced in Mr Balfour's See also:compromise, and had co-operated in reconstituting the See also:ministry; his nephew and See also:heir had been made See also:financial secretary to the treasury, while Mr See also:Alfred See also:Lyttelton was appointed colonial secretary, Mr Austen Chamberlain chancellor of the exchequer, Mr Brodrick secretary for India, Mr H. O. See also:Arnold-See also:Forster war minister, Lord See also:Stanley postmaster-general and Mr See also:Graham See also: His dialectical dexterity in evading the necessity of expressing his fiscal opinions further than he had already done became a daily subject for contemptuous criticism in the Liberal press; but he insisted that in any case no definite action could be taken till the next parliament; and while he declined to go the " whole hog "—as the phrase went—with Mr Chamberlain, he did nothing to discourage Mr Chamberlain's campaign. Whether he would eventually follow in the same direction, or would come back to the straiter free-trade side, continued to he the political See also:conundrum for See also:month after month. See also:Minor changes were made in the ministry in 1903, Mr Brodrick going to the India office and Mr Arnold-Forster becoming minister for war; but Mr Balfour's personal influence remained potent, the government held together, and in 1904 the Licensing Bill was success-fully carried. Though a few Unionists transferred their See also:allegiance, notably Mr. Winston Churchill, and by-elections went badly, Mr Balfour still commanded a considerable though a dwindling najority, and the various contrivances of the opposition for combining all free-traders against the government were obstructed by the fact that anything tantamount to a See also:vote of censure would not be supported by the " wobblers " in the ministerial party, while the government could always See also:manage to draft some " safe " See also:amendment acceptable to most of them. This was notably shown in the debate on Mr See also:Black's See also:motion on the 18th of May. On the 3rd of October Mr Balfour spoke at See also:Edinburgh on the fiscal question. The more aggressive protectionists among Mr Chamberlain's supporters had lately become very confident, and Mr Balfour plainly repudiated " See also:protection " in so far as it meant a policy aiming at supporting or creating home See also:industries by raising home prices; but he introduced a new point by declaring that an Imperial See also:Conference would be called to discuss with the colonies the question of preferential tariffs if the Unionist government obtained a majority at the next general election. The Edinburgh speech was again received with conflicting interpretations, and much discussion prevailed as to theconditions of the proposed conference, and as to whether it was or was not an advance, as the Chamberlainites claimed, towards Mr Chamberlain. Meanwhile the party was getting more and more disorganized, and the public were getting tired of the apparent mystification. The opposition used the situation to make capital in the country, and loudly called for a See also:dissolution. It was plain indeed that the fiscal question itself was ripe for the polls; Board of Trade statistics had been issued in profusion, and the whole case was before the country. But, though Mr Chamberlain declared his See also:desire for an early See also:appeal to the See also:electors, he maintained his parliamentary loyalty to Mr Balfour. There were, moreover, public reasons why a See also:change of government was undesirable. From 1903 onwards the question of See also:army reform had been under discussion, and the government was anxious to get this settled, though in fact Mr Brodrick's and Mr Arnold-Forster's schemes for reorganization failed to obtain any general support. And while foreign affairs were being admirably conducted by Lord Lansdowne, they were critical enough to make it dangerous to contemplate a " swopping of horses." The Russo-See also:Japanese War might at any moment lead to complications. The exercise by See also:Russian warships of the right of See also:search over British See also:ships was causing great irritation in English commercial circles during 1904; after several incidents had occurred, the stopping of the P. & O. steamer " Malacca " on July r3th in the Red See also:Sea by the Russian volunteer cruiser " Peterburg " led -to a See also:storm of indignation, and the sinking of the " See also:Knight See also:Commander " (July 24th) by the See also:Vladivostok See also:squadron intensified the feeling. On the 23rd of October the outrageous firing by the Russian Baltic See also:fleet on the English fishing-fleet off the Dogger See also:Bank in the North Sea was within an See also:ace of causing war. It was not till the 28th that Mr Balfour, speaking at See also:Southampton, was able to announce that the Russian government had expressed regret, and that an international commission would inquire into the facts with a view to the responsible persons being punished. Apart from the importance of seeing the Russo-Japanese War through, there were important negotiations on See also:foot for a renewal or revision of the treaty with See also:Japan; and it was See also:felt that on these grounds it would be a mistake for the government to allow itself to be driven into a premature dissolution, unless it found itself unable to maintain a majority in parliament. At the same time the government's See also:tenure of office was obviously See also:drawing to its close; the usual See also:interpretation of the Septennial Act involved a dissolution either in 1905 or 1906, and the government whips found increased difficulty in keeping a majority at Westminster, since neither the pronounced Chamberlainites nor the convinced free-trade Unionists showed any zeal, and a large number of the uncertain Unionists did not intend to stand again for parliament. The events of the session of 1905 soon foreshadowed the end. The opposition were determined to raise debates in the House of Commons on the fiscal question, and Mr Balfour was no less determined not to be caught in their See also:trap. These See also:tactics of avoidance reached their culminating point when on one occasion Mr Balfour and his supporters See also:left the House and allowed a motion hostile to tariff reform to he passed nem. See also:con. Though the Scottish Churches Bill, the Unemployed Bill and the See also:Alien. Bill were passed, a complete fiasco occurred over the redistribu tion proposals, which pleased nobody and had to be withdrawn' owing to a blunder as to procedure; and though on the 17th of July a meeting of the party at the foreign office resulted in verbal assurances of loyalty, only two days later the government was caught in a minority of four on the estimates for the Irish Land Commission. For a few days it was uncertain whether they would resign or dissolve, but it was decided to hold on. The real causes, however, which kept the government in office, were gradually losing their validity. The Russo-Japanese War came to an end; the new offensive and defensive See also:alliance with Japan was signed on the 12th of August; the successful Anglo-French agreement, concluded in See also:April 1904, had brought out a vigorous expression of cordiality between England and See also:France, shown in an enthusiastic exchange of See also:naval visits; and the danger, which threatened in the early summer, of complications with France and Gemany over See also:Morocco, was in a fair way of being dispelled by the support given to France by Great See also:Britain. The Liberal leaders had given public pledges of their See also:adhesion to Lord Lansdowne's foreign policy, and the fear of their being unable to carry it on was no longer a See also:factor in the public mind. The end came in November 19o5, precipitated by a speech made by Mr Balfour at See also:Newcastle on the 14th, appealing for unity in the party and the sinking of See also:differences, an appeal plainly addressed to Mr Chamberlain, whose supporters—the vast majority of the Unionists—were clamouring for a fighting policy. But Mr Chamberlain was no longer prepared to wait. On the 21st of November at See also:Bristol he insisted on his programme being adopted, and Mr Balfour was compelled to abandon the position he had held with so much See also:tactical dexterity for two years past. Amid Liberal protests in favour of immediate dissolution, he resigned on the 4th of December; and Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, being entrusted by the king with the formation of a government, filled his cabinet with a view to a general election in January. The Unionists went to the polls with divided counsels, and sustained a crushing defeat, remarkable nevertheless for the See also:comparative success of the tariff reformers. While Mr Chamberlain had a See also:signal personal See also:triumph in all the divisions of See also:Birmingham, Mr Balfour himself was defeated by a large majority in Manchester.
Being in a miserable minority in parliament (157 Unionists against 379 Liberals, 51 Labour members, and 83 Nationalists), some form of consolidation among the Unionists was immediately necessary, and negotiations took place between Mr Balfour and Mr Chamberlain which resulted in the patching up of an agreement (expressed in a correspondence dated February 14th), and its See also:confirmation at a meeting of the party at Lansdowne House a few days later. The new compact was indicated in Mr Balfour's See also:letter, in which he declared that " fiscal reform is, and must remain, the first constructive work of the Unionist party; its See also:objects are to secure more equal terms of competition for British trade and closer commercial union with the colonies; and while it is at See also:present unnecessary to prescribe the exact methods by which these objects are to be attained, and inexpedient to permit differences of See also:opinion as to these methods to See also:divide the party, though other means are possible, the See also:establishment of a moderate general tariff on manufactured goods, not imposed for the purpose of raising prices, or giving artificial protection against legitimate competition, and the See also:imposition of a small duty on foreign corn, are not in principle objectionable, and should be adopted if shown to be necessary for the attainment of the ends in view' or for purposes of revenue." Mr Balfour's leadership of the whole party was now confirmed; and a seat was found for him in the See also:City of London by the retirement of Mr See also:Gibbs.
The downfall of Mr Balfour's administration, and the necessity of reorganizing the Unionist forces on the basis of the See also:common platform now adopted, naturally represented a fresh departure under his leadership, the conditions of which to some extent depended on the opportunities given to the new opposition by the proceedings of the Radical government (see CAMPBELLBANNERMAN, SIR H.; and See also:ASQUITH, H. H.). His own administration had been wrecked, through no initiative of his, by the dissensions over the fiscal question. But his wide range of know-ledge and interests, his intellectual finesse, his personal hold over his supporters, his statesmanlike grasp upon imperial problems and his oratorical ability, had been proved to a remarkable degree; and in foreign affairs his tenure of power had been conspicuously successful. He left his country. indeed in a position of strength abroad, which it had not held since the See also:Crimean War. His institution of the permanent See also:Committee of Imperial Defence, and of the new Army Council (1904), were reforms of the highest importance, resulting from the report of a " triumvirate " consisting of Lord See also:Ether, Sir John See also:Fisher and Sir George See also: This See also:verdict, however, was one based mainly on temporary reasons, which were soon to be over-shadowed by the new issues involved in the change of ministry. As a matter of fact, a year of opposition had not passed before his power in the House of Commons, even with so small a party behind him, was once more realized. The immense Radical majority started with a feeling of contempt for the leader who had been rejected at Manchester, but by 1907 he had completely reasserted his individual pre-See also:eminence among parliamentarians. Mr Balfour had never spoken more brilliantly, nor shone more as a debater, than in these years when he had to confront a House of Commons three-fourths of which was hostile. His speech at Birmingham (November 14, 1907), fully accepting the principles of Mr Chamberlain's fiscal policy, proved See also:epoch-making in consolidating the Unionist party—except for a small number of free-traders, like Lord See also:Robert Cecil, who continued to hold out—in favour of tariff reform; and during 1908 the See also:process of recuperation went on, the by-elections showing to amarked degree the increased popular support given to the Unionist candidates. This recovery was due also to the forcible-feeble character of the Radical campaign against the House of Lords, the unpopularity of the Licensing Bill, the failure of the government to arrive at an education settlement, the incapacity of its Irish administration, its apparent domination by the " little See also:navy " See also:section, and its dallying with See also:Socialism in the budget of 1909. The rejection of this budget in December by the House of Lords led to a desperate struggle at the polls in January 1910, but the confident hopes of the Unionists were doomed to disappointment. They won back over a See also:hundred seats, returning 273 strong, but were still in a minority, the Liberals numbering 275, Labour members 40, and Irish Nationalists 82. Mr Balfour himself was elected for the City of London by an enormous majority. Mr Balfour's other publications, not yet mentioned, include Essays and Addresses (1893) and The See also:Foundations of Belief, being Notes See also:introductory to the Study of See also:Theology (1895). He was made LL.D. of Edinburgh University in 1881; of St See also:Andrews University in 1885; of Cambridge University in 1888 ; of Dublin and See also:Glasgow See also:Universities in 1891; lord See also:rector of St Andrews University in 1886; of Glasgow University in 1890; chancellor of Edinburgh University in 1891; member of the See also:senate London University in 1888; and DC.L. of See also:Oxford University in 1891. He was president of the British Association in 1904, and became a See also:fellow of the Royal Society in 1888. He was known from early life as a cultured musician, and became an enthusiastic See also:golf player, having been See also:captain of the Royal and Antient Golf See also:Club of St Andrews in 1894-1895. (H. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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