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PENINSULAR WAR (1808–14)
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See also:PENINSULAR See also:WAR (1808–14) . This important war, the conduct and result of which greatly enhanced the See also:prestige of See also:British arms, had for its See also:main See also:object the freedom of the See also:Peninsula of See also:Spain and See also:Portugal from the domination of See also:Napoleon; and hence it derives its name, though it terminated upon the See also:soil of See also:France.
See also:Nelson having destroyed the See also:French See also:fleet at See also:Trafalgar, Napoleon feared the possibility of a British See also:army being landed on the Peninsular coasts, whence in See also:conjunction with Portuguese and See also:Spanish forces it might attack France from the See also:south. He therefore called upon Portugal, in See also:August 1807, to comply with his See also:Berlin See also:decree of the 21st of See also:November 18o6, under which See also:continental nations were to See also:close their ports to British subjects, and have no communication with See also:Great See also:Britain. At the same See also:time he persuaded the weak See also: During See also:February and See also: Duhesme, having failed to take See also:Gerona, was blockaded in Barcelona, Joseph fled from Madrid (Aug. 1, 18o8), and the French forces closed to their rear to defend their communications with France. The British troops were directed towards Lisbon and Cadiz, in See also:order to secure these harbours, to prevent the subjugation of Andalusia, and to operate up the basins of the See also:Guadiana, See also:Tagus and See also:Douro into Spain. The British force consisted of 9000 men from See also:Cork, under See also:Sir See also:Arthur See also:Wellesley—at first in chief command; 5000 from See also:Gibraltar, under General (Sir Brent) See also:Spencer; and 1o,000 under Sir See also: On the 21st of August the Allies were attacked by Junot at Vimiera, who, leaving a force at Lisbon, had come up to reinforce Delaborde. In this battle the Allies Battle of numbered about 18,000 with 18 guns, French nearly Vimlera, 14,000, with 20 guns. Junot, believing the allied August2l, See also:left to be weakly held, attacked it without recon-1808. noitring, but .Wellesley's regiments, marched thither behind the heights, sprang up in See also:line; and under their volleys and See also:bayonet See also:charge, supported by See also:artillery See also:fire, Junot's deep columns were driven off the See also:direct road to Lisbon. The losses were: Allies about Soo, French 2000 and 13 guns. It was now again Wellesley's wish to advance and seize Torres Vedras; but Sir Hew Dalrymple, having at this moment assumed command, decided otherwise. On the 2nd of August Junot, knowing of the approach of Moore with reinforcements, and afraid of a revolt in Lisbon, opened negotiations, which resulted in the See also:Convention of See also:Cintra 2 (Aug. 30, 1808), under which the French evacuated Portugal, on See also:condition that they were sent with their artillery and arms to France. Thus this campaign had been rapidly brought to a satisfactory conclusion; and Sir Arthur Wellesley had already given See also:proof of his exceptional gifts as a See also:leader. In See also:England however a cry was raised that Junot should have been forced to an absolutely unconditional surrender; and Sir Arthur Wellesley, Sir Hew Dalrymple and Sir Harry Burrard3 were brought before a See also:court of inquiry in See also:London. This acquitted them of blame, and Sir John Moore in the mean-time after the departure of Dalrymple (Oct. 6, 1808) had assumed command of the allied army in Portugal, now about 32,000 strong. Moore's Campaign in Spain, 18o8-9.—The British government notified to Sir John Moore that some so,000 men were to be sent to See also:Corunna under Sir See also:David See also:Baird; that he, with 20,000, was to join him, and then both See also:act in See also:concert with the Spanish armies. As the conduct of this campaign was largely influenced by the operations of the Spanish forces, it is necessary to mention their positions, and also the fact that greater reliance had been placed, both in England and Spain, upon them than future events justified. On the 26th of October 1808, when Moore's troops had left Lisbon to join Baird, the French still held a defensive position behind the See also:Ebro; Bcssicres being in the See also:basin of See also:Vitoria, Marshal See also:Ney north-west of Logrofio, and Moncey covering Pampeluna, and near Sanguessa. With the garrisons of Biscay, Navarre, and a reserve at See also:Bayonne, their strength was about 75,000 men. Palafox (20,000) was near Saragossa and observing Sanguessa; Castanos with the victors of Baylen(32,000) See also:east of Reynosa, having captured See also:Bilbao; See also:Count de See also:Belvedere (11,000) near Burgos; reserves (57,000) were assembling about See also:Segovia, Talavera and Cordova; Catalonia was held by 23,000, and Madrid had been reoccupied. Moore had to decide whether to join Baird by See also:sea or land. To do so by sea at this See also:season was to See also:risk delay, while in moving by land he would have the Spanish armies between him and the French. For these reasons he marched by land; and as the roads north of the Tagus were deemed impassable for guns, while transport and supplies for a large force were also difficult to procure, he sent Sir John See also:Hope, with the artillery, See also:cavalry and reserve See also:ammunition See also:column, south of the See also:river, through See also:Badajoz to Almaraz, to move thence through Talavera, Madrid and the Escurial Pass, involving a considerable detour; while he himself with the See also:infantry, marching by successive divisions, took the shorter roads north of the Tagus through See also:Coimbra and See also:Almeida, and also by See also:Alcantara and Coria to See also:Ciudad Rodrigo and See also:Salamanca. Baird was to move south through Galicia to meet him, and the army was to concentrate at Valladolid, Burgos, or whatever point might seem later on to be best. But as Moore was moving forward, the whole situation in Spain changed. Napoleon's forces, now increased to some 200,000 men See also:present and more following, were assuming the offensive, and he himself on the 3oth of October—had left See also:Paris to place himself at their See also:head. Before them the Spaniards were routed in every direction: Castanos was defeated near Logrofio (Oct. 27); Castafios and Palafox at Tudela (Nov. 23); Blake at Zornoza (Oct.' 29), Espinosa (Nov. 11) and Reynosa (Nov. 13); and Belvedere at Gamonal, near Burgos (Nov. 1o). Thus when Moore reached Salamanca (Nov. 28) Baird was at See also:Astorga; Hope at the Escurial Pass; Napoleon himself at See also:Aranda; and French troops at Valladolid, Arevalo and Segovia; so that the French were nearer than either Baird or Hope to Moore at Salamanca. Moore was ignorant of their exact position and strength, but he knew that Valladolid had been occupied, and so his first orders were that Baird should fall back to Galicia and Hope to Portugal. But these were soon changed, and he now took the important See also:resolution of striking a See also:blow for Spain, and for the defenders of Madrid, by attacking Napoleon's communications with France. Hope having joined him through See also:Avila, and magazines having been formed at Benavente, Astorga and See also:Lugo, in See also:case of See also:retreat in that direction, he moved forward, and on the 13th of See also:December approached the Douro, at and near See also:Rueda east of See also:Toro. Here he learnt that Madrid had fallen to Napoleon (Dec. 3) after he had by a brilliant charge of the See also:Polish lancers and chasseurs of the Guard forced the Somosierra Pass (Nov. 30) and in another See also:action stormed the Retiro commanding Madrid itself (Dec. 3); that the French were pressing on towards Lisbon and Andalusia; that Napoleon was unaware of his vicinity, and that See also:Soult's corps, isolated on the Carrion River, had been ordered towards Benavente. He then finally decided to attack Soult (intending subsequently to fall back through Galicia) and ordered up transports from Lisbon to Corunna and See also:Vigo; thus changing his See also:base from Portugal to the north-west of Spain; Blake's Spanish army, now rallying under the marquis de la Romana near See also:Leon, was to co-operate, but was able to give little effective aid. On the loth of December Baird joined Moore near Mayorga, and a brilliant cavalry combat now took place at Sahagun, in which the British See also:hussar See also:brigade distinguished itself. But on the 23rd of December, when Moore was at Sahagun and about to attack Soult, he learnt that overwhelming French forces were hastening towards him, so withdrew across the Esla, near Benevente (Dec. 28), destroying the See also:bridge there. Napoleon, directly he realized Moore's proximity, had ordered Soult to Astorga to cut him off from Galicia; recalled his other troops from their march towards Lisbon and Andalusia, and, with 50,000 men and 150 guns, had left Madrid himself (Dec. 22). He traversed over 'co m. in less than five days across the See also:snow-covered Escurial Pass, reaching Tordesillas on the Douro on the 26th of December. Hence he wrote to Soult, " If the See also:English " In this See also:account of the war the losses and See also:numbers engaged in different battles are given approximately only; and the former include killed, wounded and missing. Historians differ much on these matters. 2 It was not, however, signed at Cintra, but at Lisbon, and was mainly negotiated near Torres Vedras. The two latter were recalled from the Peninsula; Sir Arthur Wellesley had proceeded to London upon leave, and had only signed the See also:armistice with Junot, not the convention itself. pass to-See also:day in their position (which he believed to be Sahagun) they are lost." But Moore had passed Astorga by the 31st of December, where Napoleon arrived on the 1st of January 1809. Thence he turned back, with a large portion of his army towards France, leaving Soult with over 40,000 men to follow Moore. On the " Retreat to Corunna " fatigue, wet and See also:bitter See also:cold, combined with the sense of an enforced retreat, shook the discipline of Moore's army; but he reached Corunna on the 11th of January 1809, where he took up a position across the road from Lugo, with his left on the river Mero. On the 14th of January the transports arrived; and on the 16th Soult attacked. Battle of In this battle the French numbered about 20,000 with Corunna, 40 guns; the British 15,000 with 9 very See also:light guns. January 16, Soult failed to dislodge the British, and Moore was 1809. about to deliver a See also:counter-attack when he himself fell mortally wounded. Baird was also wounded, and as night was approaching, Hope suspended the advance, and subsequently embarked the army, with scarcely any further loss. The British casualties were about 100o, the French 2000. When the troops landed in England, See also:half clothed and half shod, their leader's conduct of the campaign was at first blamed, but his reputation as a general rests solidly upon these facts, that when Napoleon in See also:person, having nearly 300,000 men in Spain, had stretched forth his See also:hand to seize Portugal and Andalusia, Moore with 30,000, forced him to withdraw it, and follow him to Corunna, escaping at the same time from his grasp. Certainly a notable achievement. Campaign in Portugal and Spain, z8og.—On the 22ndof See also:April 1809 Sir Arthur Wellesley reached Lisbon. By this time, French armies, to a great extent controlled by Napoleon from a distance, had advanced—Soult from Galicia to See also:capture See also:Oporto and Lisbon (with General Lapisse from Salamanca moving on his left towards See also:Abrantes) and Marshal See also:Victor, still farther to the left, with a See also:siege See also:train to take Badajoz, See also:Merida and subsequently Cadiz. Soult (over 20,000), leaving Ney in Galicia, had taken and sacked Oporto (March 29, 1809); but the Portuguese having closed upon his rear and occupied Vigo, he halted, detaching a force to Amarante to keep open the road to See also:Braganza and asked for reinforcements. Victor had crossed the Tagus, and defeated See also:Cuesta at See also:Medellin (March 28, 'Soo); but, surrounded by insurgents, he also had halted; Lapisse had joined him, and together they were near Merida, 30,000 strong. On the allied See also:side the British (25,000), including some See also:German auxiliaries, were about See also:Leiria: the Portuguese See also:regular troops (16,000) near See also:Thomar; and some thousands of Portuguese militia were observing Soult in the north of Portugal, a body under Silveira. being at Amarante, which Soult was now approaching. Much progress had been made in the organization and training of the Portuguese levies; See also:Major-General See also: On the 5th of May 1809, Wellesley moved towards the river Douro, having detached Beresford to seize Amarante, from which the French had now driven Silveira. Soult Passage of expected the passage of the Douro to be attempted the Douro, near its mouth, with fishing See also:craft; but Wellesley, by May 12,1809. a daring surprise, crossed (May 12) close above Oporto, and also by a See also:ford higher up. After some fighting Oporto was taken, and Soult driven back. The Portuguese being in his rear, and Wellesley closing with him, the only See also:good road of retreat available lay through Amarante, but he now learned that Beresford had taken this important point from Silveira; so he was then compelled, abandoning his guns andmuch baggage, to See also:escape, with a loss of some 5000 men, over the mountains of the Sierra Catalina to Salamonde, and thence to Orense.
During the above operations, Victor, with Lapisse, had forced the passage of the Tagus at Alcantara but, on Wellesley returning to Abrantes, he retired. See also:News having been received that Napoleon had suffered a serious check at the battle of Aspern, near See also:Vienna (May 22, 1809), Wellesley next determined—leaving Beresford (20,000) near Ciudad Rodrigo—to move with 22,000 men, in conjunction with Cuesta's Spanish army (40,000) towards Madrid against Victor, who, with 25,000 supported by King Joseph (50,000) covering the See also:capital, was near Talavera. Sir See also:Robert See also: Wellesley's force was now in a dangerous position: but by withdrawing at once across the Tagus at Arzobispo, he reached Jaraicejo and Almaraz (by the south See also:bank) blowing up the bridge at Almaraz, and thence moved, through Merida, northwards to the See also:banks of the Agueda, commencing to fortify the country around Lisbon.
Eisewhere in the Peninsula during this See also:year, Blake, now in Catalonia, after routing See also:Suchet at Alcaniz (May 23, 1809), was defeated by him at Maria (June 15) and at Belchite (June 18); Venegas, by King Joseph and Sebastian, at Almonacid on the 11th of August; Del Parque (20,000), after a previous victory near Salamanca (Oct. 18), was overthrown at See also:Alba de Tormes by General Marchand (Nov. 28); the old forces of Venegas and Cuesta (50,000), now united under Areizaga, were decisively routed by King Joseph at Ocana (Nov.19); and Gerona after a gallant defence, had surrendered to See also:Augereau (Dec. It)).
Sir Arthur Wellesley was for this campaign created See also:Baron Douro and See also:Viscount See also:Wellington. He was made See also:captain-general by Spain, and marshal-general by Portugal. But his experience after Talavera had been akin to that of Moore; his expectations from the Spaniards had not been realized; he had been almost intercepted by the French, and he had narrowly escaped from a See also:critical position. Henceforth he resisted all proposals for See also:joint operations, on any large See also:scale, with Spanish armies not under his own direct command.
1 After the battle the Light Division, under Robert See also:Craufurd, joined Wellesley. In the endeavour to reach the See also: Marshal See also:Massena with 120,000, including the corps of Ney, Junot, Reynier and some of the Imperial Guard, was to operate from Salamanca against Portugal; but first Soult, appointed major-general of the army in Spain (See also:equivalent to chief of the See also:staff), was, with the corps of Victor, Mortier and Sebastian (70,000), to reduce Andalusia. Soult (See also:Jan. 31, 1810) occupied Seville and escaping thence to Cadiz, the Supreme Junta resigned its See also:powers to a regency of five members (Feb. 2, 181o). Cadiz was invested by Victor's corps (Feb. 4), and then Soult halted, waiting for Massena, who arrived at Valladolid on the 15th of May. In England a party in See also:parliament were urging the withdrawal of the British troops, and any reverse to the allied arms would have strengthened its hands. Wellington's policy was thus cautious and defensive, and he had already commenced the since famous lines of Torres Vedras See also:round Lisbon. In June 1810 his headquarters were at Celorico. With about 35,000 British, 30,000 Portuguese regular troops and 30,000 Portuguese militia, he watched the roads leading into Portugal past Ciudad Rodrigo to the north, and Badajoz to the south of the Tagus, as also the line of the Douro and the country between the Elga and the Ponsul. Soult having been instructed to co-operate by taking Badajoz and See also:Elvas, Massena, See also:early in June 1810, moved forward, and Ciudad Rodrigo surrendered to him (June ro). Next pushing back a British force under Craufurd, he invested Almeida, taking it on the 27th of August. Then calling up Reynier, who during this had moved on his left towards Alcantara, he marched down the right bank of the Mondego, and entered Viseu (See also:Sept. 21). Wellington fell back before him down the left bank, ordering up See also:Rowland See also: 15) to See also:Santarem. This practically closed Wellington's operations for the year 181o, his policy now being not to lose men in battle, but to reduce Massena by See also:hunger and See also:distress.
In other parts of Spain, Augereau had taken Hostalrich (May to); captured See also:Lerida (May 14); Mequinenza (June 8); and invested See also:Tortosa (Dec. 15). The Spanish levies had been unable to contribute much aid to the Allies; the French having subdued almost all Spain, and being now in See also:possession of Ciudad Rodrigo and Almeida. On the other hand Wellington still held Lisbon with parts of Portugal, Elvas and Badajoz, for Soult had not See also:felt disposed to See also:attempt the capture of the last two fortresses.93
Campaign of 2822.—Napoleon, whose See also:attention was now directed towards See also:Russia, refused to reinforce Massena, but enjoined Soult to aid him by moving against Badajoz. Soult, therefore, leaving Victor before Cadiz, invested Badajoz (Jan. 26, 1811) and took it from the Spaniards (March 1o). With the hope of raising the See also:blockade of Cadiz, a force under Sir See also: The French afterwards resumed the blockade, so that although Barrosa was an allied victory, its object was not attained. The British loss was about 1200; the French 2000, 6 guns and an See also:eagle. On the day of the above battle Massena, having destroyed what guns he could not See also:horse, and skilfully gained time by a feint against Abrantes, began his retreat from before Massena's the lines, through Coimbra and Espinhal. His Retreat. army was in serious distress; he was in want of See also:food and supplies; most of his horses were dead, and his men were deserting. Wellington followed, directing the Portuguese to remove all boats from the Mondego and Douro, and to break up roads north of the former river. Beresford was detached to succour Badajoz, but was soon recalled, as it had fallen to Soult. Ney, commanding Massena's rearguard, conducted the retreat with great ability. In the pursuit, Wellington adhered to his policy of husbanding his troops for future offensive operations, and let sickness and hunger do the work of the See also:sword. This they effectually did. Nothing could well exceed the horrors of Massena's retreat. Rearguard actions were fought at See also:Pombal (March lc), Redinha (March 12) and Condeixa (March 13). Here Ney was directed to make a See also:firm stand; but, ascertaining that the Portuguese were at Coimbra and the bridge there broken, and fearing to be cut off also from Murcella, he burnt Condeixa, and marched to Cazal Nova. An action took place here (March 14) and at Foz d'Arouce (March 15). Wellington now sent off Beresford with a force to retake Badajoz; and Massena, sacrificing much of his baggage and ammunition, reached Celorico and See also:Guarda (March 21). Here he was attacked by Wellington (March 29) and, after a further engagement at Sabugal (April 3, 1811), he fell back through Ciudad to Salamanca, having lost in Portugal n'barly 30,000 men, chiefly from want and disease, and 6000 in the retreat alone. The key to the remaining operations of 1811 lies in the importance attached by both Allies and French to the possession of the fortresses which guarded the two great roads from Portugal into Spain—Almeida and Ciudad Rodrigo on the See also:northern, and Badajoz and Elvas on the See also:southern road; all these except Elvas were in French hands. Wellington, on the 9th of April 1811, directed General Spencer to invest Almeida; he then set off himself to join Beresford before Badajoz, but after reconnoitring the fortress with his lieutenant he had at once to return north on the news that Massena was moving to relieve Almeida. On the 3rd of May Loison attacked him at Fuentes d'Onor near Almeida, and Massena coming up himself made a more serious attack on the 5th of May. The Allies numbered Battle of about 33,000, with 42 guns; the French 45,000 with Fuentes 30 guns. The battle is chiefly notable for the steadi- donor, ness with which the allied right, covered by the Light mays, 1811. Division in squares, changed position in presence of the French cavalry; and for the extraordinary feat of arms of Captain See also:Norman See also:Ramsay, R.H.A., in charging through the French cavalry with his guns. Massena failed to dislodge the Allies, and on the 8th of May withdrew to Salamanca, Almeida falling to Wellington on the 11th of May 1811. The allied loss in the fighting on both days at Fuentes d'Onor was about i5oo: the French 3000. In the meantime Soult (with 23,000 men and 5o guns), advancing to relieve Badajoz, compelled Beresford to suspend Battle of the siege, and to take up a position with about 30,000 See also:Albuera, men (of whom 7000 were British) and 38 guns May 16, behind the river Albuhera (or Albuera). Here 1811. Soult attacked him on the 16th of May. An unusually bloody battle ensued, in which the French efforts were chiefly directed against the allied right, held by the Spaniards. At one time the right appeared to be broken, and 6 guns were lost, when a gallant advance of Sir Lowry See also:Cole's division restored the day, Soult then falling back towards Seville. The allied loss was about 7000 (including about half the British force) ; the French about 8000. After this Wellington from Almeida rejoined Beresford and the siege of Badajoz was continued: but now Marshal See also:Marmont, having succeeded Massena, was marching southwards to join Soult, and, two allied assaults of Badajoz having failed, Welling-ton withdrew. Subsequently, leaving Hill in the See also:Alemtejo, he returned towards Almeida, and with 40,000 men commenced a blockade of Ciudad Rodrigo, his headquarters being at Fuente Guinaldo. Soult and Marmont now fell back, the former to Seville, the latter to the valley of the Tagus, south of the pass of Banos. In September, Marmont joined with the army of the north under General Dorsenne, coming from Salamanca—their See also:total force being 6o,000, with See also:loo guns—and succeeded (Sept. 25) in introducing a See also:convoy of provisions into Ciudad Rodrigo. Before so superior a force, Wellington had not attempted to maintain the blockade; but on Marmont afterwards advancing towards him, he fought a rearguard action with him at El Bodon (Sept. 25), notable, as was Fuentes d'Onor, for the coolness with which the allied squares retired amidst the enemy's horsemen; and again at Fuenta Guinaldo (Sept. 25 and 26) he maintained for 30 hours, with 15,000 men, a bold front against Marmont's army of 6o,000, in order to See also:save the Light Division from being cut off. At Aldea de See also:Ponte there was a further See also:sharp engagement (Sept. 27), but Wellington taking up a strong position near Sabugal, Marmont and Dorsenne withdrew once more to the valley of the Tagus and Salamanca respectively, and Wellington again blockaded Ciudad Rodrigo. Thus terminated the main operations of this year. On the 28th of October 1811, Hill, by a very skilful surprise, captured See also:Arroyo de los See also:Molinos (between Badajoz and See also:Trujillo), almost annihilating a French corps under See also:Gerard; and in December 1811 the French were repulsed in their efforts to capture Tarifa near Cadiz. In the east of Spain Suchet took Tortosa (Jan. 1, 1811); Tarragona (June 28); and Murviedro (Oct. 26), defeating Blake's relieving force, which then took refuge in Valencia. See also:Macdonald also retook Figueras which the Spaniards had taken on the 9th of April 1811 (Aug. 19). Portugal had now been freed from the French, but they still held Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, the two main See also:gates into Spain. Campaign in Spain, 1812.—The campaign of 1812 marks an important See also:stage in the war. Napoleon, with the See also:Russian War in prospect, had early in the year withdrawn 30,000 men from Spain; and Wellington had begun to carry on what he termed a war of " magazines." Based on See also:rivers (the See also:navigation of which greatly improved) and the sea, he formed depots or magazines of provisions at many points, which enabled him always to take and keep the field. The French, on the other hand, had great difficulty in establishing any such reserves of food, owing to their practice of depending for sustenance entirely upon the country in which they were quartered. Wellington assumed the offensive, and by various movements and feints, aided the See also:guerrilla bands by forcing the French corps to assemble in theirdistricts, which not only greatly harassed them but also materially hindered the See also:combination of their corps for concerted action. Having secretly got a battering train into Almeida and directed Hill, as a See also:blind, to engage Soult by threatening Badajoz, .he suddenly (Jan. 8, 1812) besieged Ciudad Rodrigo. The French, still numbering nearly 200,000, now held the following positions: the Army of the North—Dorsenne (48,000)-was about the Pisuerga, in the See also:Asturias, and along the northern .See also:coast; the Army of Portugal—Marmont' (50,000)—mainly in the valley of the Tagus, but ordered to Salamanca; the Army of the South—Soult (55,00o)—in Andalusia; the Army of the Centre —Joseph (19,000)—about Madrid. The siege of Ciudad Rodrigo was calculated in the See also:ordinary course to require twenty-four days: but on it becoming known that Marmont was moving northward, the See also:assault was siege of delivered after twelve days only (Jan. 19). The Ciudad gallantry of the troops made it successful, though with Rodrigo, the loss of Generals Craufurd and McKinnon, and 1300 19nuar. 8-men, and Marmont's battering train of 150 guns here fell into the allied hands. Then, after a feint of passing on into Spain, Wellington rapidly marched south and, with 22,000 men, laid siege to Badajoz (March 17, 1812), Hill with 30,000 covering the siege near Merida. Wellington was hampered by want of time, and had to assault prematurely. Soult and Marmont having begun to move to relieve the See also:garrison, the assault was delivered on the night of the 7th of April, and siege of though the assailants failed at the breaches, the Badajoz, carnage at which was terrible, a very daring escalade march 17 to of one of the bastions and of the See also:castle succeeded, Apri17,1812. and Badajoz fell, Souk's See also:pontoon train being taken in it. After the assault, some deplorable excesses were committed by the victorious troops. The allied loss was 3600 in the assault alone and 5000 in the entire siege. The Allies had now got possession of the two great gates into Spain: and Hill, by an enterprise most skilfully carried out, destroyed (May 19) the Tagus bridge at Almaraz, by which Soult to the south of the river chiefly communicated with Marmont to the north. Wellington then, ostentatiously making preparations to enter Spain by the Badajoz line, once more turned northward, crossed the Tormes (June 17, 1812), and advanced to the Douro, behind which the French were See also:drawn up. Marmont had erected at Salamanca some strong forts, the reduction of which occupied Wellington ten days, and cost him 600 men. The Allies and French now faced each other along the Douro to the Pisuerga. The river was high, and Wellington hoped that want of supplies would compel Marmont to retire, but in this he was disappointed. On the 15th of July 1812, Marmont, after a feint against Wellington's left, suddenly, by a forced march, turned his right, and made rapidly towards the fords of Huerta and Alba on the Tormes. Some interesting manoeuvres now took place, Wellington moving parallel and close to Marmont, but more to the north, making for the fords of Aldea Lengua and See also:Santa Marta on the Tormes nearer to Salamanca, and being under the belief that the Spaniards held the castle and ford at Alba on that river. But Marmont's manoeuvring and marching See also:power had been underestimated, and on the 21st of July while Wellington's position covered Salamanca, and but indirectly his line of communications through Ciudad Rodrigo, Marmont had reached a point from which he hoped to interpose between Wellington and Portugal, on the Ciudad Rodrigo road. This he endeavoured to do on the 22nd of July 1812, which' brought on the important battle of Salamanca (q.v.) in which Battle of Wellington gained a decisive victory, the French Salamanca, falling back to Valladolid and thence to Burgos. /uiy22, Wellington entered Valladolid (July 3o), and thence 1812' marched against Joseph, who (July 21) had reached Blasco Sancho with reinforcements for Marmont. Joseph retired before him, and Wellington entered Madrid (Aug. 12, 1812), where, in the Retiro, 1700 men, 18o cannon, two eagles, and a quantity of stores were captured. Soult now raised the siege of Cadiz (Aug. 26), and evacuating Andalusia joined Suchet with some S5,000 men. Wellington then brought up Hill to Madrid. On the 1st of September 1812, the French armies having begun once more to collect together, Wellington marched against the siege of the Army of the North, now under General Clause], and castle of laid siege to the castle of Burgos (Sept. 19) to secure Burros, the road towards Santander on the coast. But the sept. 19 to strength of the castle had been underrated ; Oct. 21. Wellington had insufficient siege equipment and transport for heavy guns; five assaults failed, and Soult (having left Suchet in Valencia) and also the Army of Portugal were both approaching, so Wellington withdrew on the night of the Retreat 21st of October, and, directing the evacuation of from Madrid, commenced the " Retreat from Burgos." Bw -os• In this retreat, although military operations were skilfully conducted, the Allies lost 7000 men, and discipline, as in that to Corunna, became much relaxed. By November 1812, Hill having joined him at Salamanca, Wellington once more had gone into cantonments near Ciudad Rodrigo, and the French armies had again scattered for convenience of supply. In spite of the failure before Burgos, the successes of the campaign had been brilliant. In addition to the decisive victory of Salamanca, Madrid had been occupied, the siege of Cadiz raised, Andalusia freed, and Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz stormed. Early in January also the French had abandoned the siege of Tarifa, though Valencia had surrendered to them (Jan. 9). One important result of the campaign was that the Spanish See also:Cortes nominated Wellington (Sept. 22, 1812) to the unfettered command of the Spanish armies. For the operations of this campaign Wellington was created See also:earl, and subsequently See also:marquess of Wellington; duke of Ciudad Rodrigo by Spain, and marquis of Torres Vedras by Portugal. Campaign in Spain and the South of France, z813.—At the opening of 1813, Suchet, with 63,000 men, had been left to hold Valencia, Aragon and Catalonia; and the See also:remainder of the French (about 137,000) occupied Leon, the central provinces and Biscay, guarding also the communications with France. Of these about 6o,000 under Joseph were more immediately opposed to Wellington, and posted, in scattered detachments, from Toledo and Madrid behind the Tormes to the Douro, and along that river to the Esla. Wellington had further organized the Spanish forces—Castanos (40,000), with the guerrilla bands of See also:Mina, Longa and others, was in Galicia, the Asturias and northern Spain; Copons (10,000) in Catalonia; Elio (20,000) in See also:Murcia; Del Parque (12,000) in the Sierra Morena, and O'Donell (15,000) in Andalusia. More Portuguese troops had been raised, and reinforcements received from England, so that the Allies, without the Spaniards above alluded to, now numbered some 75,000 men, and from near the Coa watched the Douro and Tormes, their line stretching from their left near See also:Lamego to the pass of Banos, Hill being on the right. The See also:district of the Trasos-Montes, north of the Douro, about the Tamega, Tua and Sabor, was so rugged that Wellington was convinced that Joseph would expect him to advance by the south of the river. He therefore, moving by the south bank himself with Hill, to confirm Joseph in this expectation, crossed the Tormes near and above Salamanca, having previously—which was to be the decisive See also:movement—detached Graham, with 40,000 men, to make his way, through the difficult district above mentioned, towards Braganza, and then, joining with the Spaniards, to turn Joseph's right. Graham, See also:crossing the Douro near Lamego, carried out his laborious march with great See also:energy, and Joseph retired precipitately from the Douro, behind the Pisuerga. The allied army, raised by the junction of the Spanish troops in Galicia to go,000, now concentrated near Toro, and moved to-wards the Pisuerga, when Joseph, blowing up the castle of Burgos, fell back behind the Ebro. Once more Wellington turned his right, by a sweeping movement through Rocamunde and Puente Arenas near the source of the Ebro, when he retreated behind the Zadorra near the See also:town of Vitoria. Santander was now evacuated by the French, and the allied line of communications was changed to that See also:port. On the lothof June Wellington encamped along the river Bayas, and the next day attacked Joseph. For a description of the decisive battle of Vitoria (June 21, 1813), see VITORIA. In it Battle of King Joseph met with a crushing defeat, and, after Vitoria, it, the See also:wreck of his army, cut off from the Vitoria- June 21, Bayonne road, escaped towards Pampeluna. Within Ism- a few days Madrid was evacuated, and all the French forces, with the exception of the garrisons of See also:San Sebastian (3000), Pampeluna (3000), Santona (15oo), and the troops under Suchet holding posts in Catalonia and Valencia, had retired across the See also:Pyrenees into France. The Spanish peninsula was, to all intents and purposes, See also:free from See also:foreign domination, although the war was yet far from concluded. The French struggled gallantly to the close: but now a long See also:succession of their leaders —Junot, Soult, Victor, Massena, Marmont, Joseph—had been in turn forced to recoil before Wellington; and while their troops fought henceforward under the depressing memory of many defeats, the Allies did so under the inspiriting See also:influence of great successes, and with that See also:absolute confidence in their chief which doubled their fighting power. For this decisive campaign, Wellington was made a field marshal in the British army, and created duke of Victory 1 by the Portuguese government in See also:Brazil. He now, with about 8o,000 men, took up a position with his left (the Spaniards) on the Bidassoa near San Sebastian. Thence his line stretched along the Pyrenees by the passes of See also:Vera, Echallar, See also:Maya and See also:Roncesvalles, to Altobiscar; his immediate object now being to reduce the fortresses of San Sebastian and Pampeluna. Not having sufficient materiel for two sieges, he laid siege to San Sebastian only, and blockaded Pampeluna. Sir Thomas Graham commenced the active siege of San Sebastian on the loth of July 1813, but as Soult was approaching to its See also:relief, the assault was ordered for daylight on the 24th. Unfortunately siege ofsan a conflagration breaking out near the breaches Sebastian, caused it to be postponed until nightfall, when, the July 1®24, breaches in the See also:interval having been strengthened, 1813' it was delivered unsuccessfully and with heavy loss. Wellington then suspended the siege in order to meet Soult, who endeavoured (July 25) to turn the allied right, and reach Pampeluna. Attacking the passes of Maya and Roncesvalles, he obliged their defenders to retire, after sharp fighting, to a position Battles of close to Sorauren, which, with 25,000 men, he the Pyre• attempted to carry (July 28). By this time Welling- nees,/u1y25 ton had reached it from the allied left; reinforcements toAugust2, were pressing up on both sides, and about 12,000 allied 1813' troops faced the French. A struggle, described by Wellington as " bludgeon work," now ensued, but all efforts to dislodge the Allies having failed, Soult, withdrawing, manceuvred to his right towards San Sebastian. Wellington now assumed the offensive, and, in a See also:series of engagements, drove the French back (Aug. 2) beyond the Pyrenees. These included Roncesvalles and Maya (July 25); Sorauren (July 28 and 30); Yanzi (Aug. 1); and Echallar and Ivantelly (Aug. 2), the total losses in them being about—Allies under 7000, French io,000. After this, Wellington renewing the siege of San Sebastian carried the place, excepting the castle, after a heavy See also:expenditure of See also:life (Aug. 31). Upon the day of its fall Soult attempted to relieve it, but StormofSan in the combats of Vera and St Marcial was repulsed. Sebastian, The castle surrendered on the 9th of September, August31, the losses in the entire siege having been about— 1813. Allies 4000, French 2000. Wellington next determined to throw his left across the river Bidassoa to strengthen his own position, and secure the port of See also:Fuenterrabia. Now commenced a series of celebrated river passages, which had to be effected See also:prior to the further invasion of France. At daylight on the 7th of October 1813 he crossed the Bidassoa in seven columns, and attacked the entire French position, which stretched in two heavily entrenched lines from north 1 Duque da See also:Victoria, often incorrectly duke of Vitoria. The coincidence of the See also:title with the place-name of the battle which had not yet been fought when the title was conferred, is curious, but accidental. of the See also:Irun-Bayonne road, along mountain spurs to the Great Rhune, 2800 ft. high. The decisive movement was a passage in Passage strength near Fuenterrabia, to the astonishment of of the the enemy, who in view of the width of the river Bidassoa, and the shifting sands, had thought the crossing October 7, impossible at that point. The French right was 1813. then rolled back, and Soult was unable to reinforce his right in time to retrieve the day. His works fell in succession after hard fighting, and he withdrew towards the river Nivelle. The loss was about—Allies, Moo; French, 1400. The passage of the Bidassoa " was a general's not a soldiers' battle " (See also:Napier). On the 31st of October Pampeluna surrendered, and Welling-ton was now anxious to drive Suchet from Catalonia before further invading France. The British government, however, in the interests of the continental powers, urged an immediate advance, so on the night of the 9th of November 1813 he brought up his right from the Pyrenean passes to the northward of Maya and towards the Nivelle. Soup's army (about 79,000), in three entrenched lines, stretched from the sea in front of St See also:Jean de Luz along commanding ground to Amotz and thence, behind the river, to Mont Mondarin near the Nive. Each army had with it about Too guns; and, during a heavy cannonade, Wellington on the loth of November 1813 attacked this extended passage of position of r6 m. in five columns, these being so the Nivelle, directed that after carrying Soult's advanced works Nov. 10, a See also:mass of about 5o,000 men converged towards the 1813. French centre near Amotz, where, after hard fighting, it swept away the 18,000 of the second line there opposed to it, cutting Soult's army in two. The French right then fell back to St Jean de Luz, the left towards points on the Nive. It was now See also:late and the Allies, after moving a few miles down both banks of the Nivelle, bivouacked, while Soult, taking See also:advantage of the See also:respite, withdrew in the night to Bayonne. The allied loss was about 2700; that of the French 4000, 51 guns, and all their magazines. The next day Wellington closed in upon Bayonne from the sea to the left bank of the Nive. After this there was a See also:period of See also:comparative inaction, though during it the French were driven from the See also:bridges at Urdains and Cambo. The weather had become See also:bad, and the Nive unfordable; but there were additional and serious causes of delay. The Portuguese and Spanish authorities were neglecting the See also:payment and supply of their troops. Wellington had also difficulties of a similar See also:kind with his own government, and also the Spanish soldiers, in revenge for many French outrages, had become guilty of See also:grave excesses in France, so that Wellington took the extreme step of sending 25,000 of them back to Spain and resigning the command of their army, though his resignation was subsequently withdrawn. So great was the tension at this crisis that a rupture with Spain seemed possible. These matters, however, having been at length adjusted, Wellington, who in his cramped position between the sea and the Nive could not use his cavalry or artillery effectively, or interfere with the French supplies coming through St Jean Pied de Port, deter-See also:mined to occupy the right aswell as the left bank of the Nive. He could not pass to that bank with his whole force while Soult held Bayonne, without exposing his own communications through Irun. Therefore, on the 9th of December 1813, after making a demonstration elsewhere, he effected the passage with Passage of a portion of his force only under Hill and Beresford, the Nlve, near Ustaritz and Cambo, his loss being slight, and Dec. 9, thence pushed down the river towards Villefranque, 1813. where Soult barred his way across the road to Bayonne. The allied army was now divided into two portions by the Nive; and Soult from Bayonne at once took advantage of his central position to attack it with all his available force, first on the left bank and then on the right. On the See also:morning of the loth of December he fell, with 60,000 men and 40 guns, upon Hope, who with 30,000 men and 24 guns held a position from the sea, 3 M. south of See also:Biarritz on a ridge behind two lakes (or tanks) through Arcangues towards the Nive. Desperate fighting now ensued, but fortunately, owing to the intersected ground, Soult was compelled to advance slowly, and in the end, Wellington coming up with Beresford from the right bank, the French retired baffled. On the See also:firth and 12th of Battles December there were engagements of a less severe before See also:character, and finally on the 13th of December Soult BBattles ayonneof, or with 35,000 men made a vehement attack up the the Ntve, right bank of the Nive against Hill, who with about Dec. 10.13, 14,000 men occupied some heights from Villefranque 1813• past St See also:Pierre (Lostenia) to Vieux Moguerre. The conflict about St Pierre (Lostenia) was one of the most bloody of the war; but for hours Hill maintained his ground, and finally repulsed the French before Wellington, delayed by his pontoon bridge over the Nive having been swept away, arrived to his aid. The losses in the four days' fighting in the battles before See also:Bay onne (or battles of the Nive) were—Allies about 5000, French about 7000. Both the British and Portuguese artillery, as well as infantry, greatly distinguished themselves in these battles. In eastern Spain Suchet (April 11, 1813) had defeated Elio's Murcians at See also:Yecla and See also:Villena, but was subsequently routed by Sir John Murrayl near Castalla (April 13), who then besieged Tarragona. The siege was abandoned after a time, but was later on renewed by Lord W. See also:Bentinck. Suchet, after the battle of Vitoria, evacuated Tarragona (Aug. 17) but defeated Bentinck in the combat of Ordal (Sept. 13). Campaign in the South of France, 1814.—When operations re-commenced in February 1814 the French line extended from Bayonne up the north bank of the See also:Adour to the See also:Pau, thence bending south along the Bidouze to St Palais, with advanced posts on the Joyeuse and at St Jean Pied de Port. Wellington's left, under Hope, watched Bayonne, while Beresford, with Hill, observed the Adour and the Joyeuse, the right trending back till it reached Urcuray on the St Jean Pied de Port road. Exclusive of the garrison of Bayonne and other places, the available field force of Soult numbered about 41,000, while that of the Allies, deducting Hope's force observing Bayonne, was of much the same strength. It had now become Wellington's object to draw Soult away from Bayonne, in order that the allied army might, with less loss, cross the Adour and lay siege to the place on both banks of the river. At its mouth the Adour was about 500 yds. wide, and its entrance from the sea by small vessels, except in the finest weather, was a perilous undertaking, owing to the shifting sands and a dangerous See also:bar. On the other hand, the deep sandy soil near its banks made the transport of bridging materiel by land laborious, and almost certain of See also:discovery. Wellington, convinced that no effort to bridge below Bayonne would be expected, decided to attempt it there, and collected at St Jean Pied de Port and Passages a large number of country vessels (termed See also:chasse-.marees). Then, leaving Hope with 30,000 men to See also:watch Bayonne, he began an enveloping movement round Soult's left. Hill on the 14th and 15th of February, after a combat at Garris, drove the French posts beyond the Joyeuse; and Wellington then pressed these troops back over the Bidouze and Gave2 de See also:Mauleon to the Gave d'See also:Oleron. Wellington's object in this was at once attained, for Soult, leaving only 10,000 men in Bayonne, came out and concentrated at Orthes on the Pau. Then Wellington (Feb. 19) proceeded to St Jean de Luz to superintend the despatch of boats to the Adour. Unfavourable weather, however, compelled him to leave this to Sir John Hope and See also:Admiral Penrose, so returning to the Gave d'Oleron he crossed it, and faced Soult on the Pau (Feb. 25). Hope in the meantime, after feints higher up the Adour, succeeded (Feb. 22 and 23) in passing 600 men across passage of the river in boats. The nature of the ground, the Adour, and there being no suspicion of an attempt at this Feb.22 to point, led to the French coming out very tardily to 24, 1814. oppose them; and when they did, some See also:Congreve rockets (then a novelty) threw them into confusion, so that the right bank was held until, on the morning of the 24th, the flotilla of I Commander of a British expedition from the Mediterranean islands. 2 " Gave" in the Pyrenees means a mountain stream or torrent. chasse-marees appeared from St Jean de Luz, preceded by men-of-war boats. Several men and vessels were lost in crossing the bar; but by See also:noon on the 26th of February the bridge of 26 vessels had been thrown and secured; batteries and a See also:boom placed to protect it, 8000 troops passed over, and the enemy's gunboats driven up the river. Bayonne was then invested on both banks as a preliminary to the siege. On the 27th of February Wellington, having with little loss effected the passage of the Pau below Orthes, attacked Soult. In this battle the Allies and French were of about equal strength (37,000): the former having 48 guns, the latter 4o. Soult held Battle of a strong position behind Orthes on heights command- Orthes, See also:ing the roads to Dax and St Sever. Beresford was Feb.27, directed to turn his right, if possible cutting him off 1814. from Dax, and Hill his left towards the St Sever road. Beresford's attack, after hard fighting over difficult ground, was repulsed, when Wellington, perceiving that the pursuing French had left a central See also:part of the heights unoccupied, thrust up the Light Division into it, between Soult's right and centre. At the same time Hill, having found a ford above Orthes, was turning the French left, when Soult retreated just in time to save being cut off, withdrawing towards St Sever, which he reached on the 28th of February. The allied loss was about 2000; the French 4000 and 6 guns. From St Sever Soult turned eastwards to See also:Aire, where he covered the roads to See also:Bordeaux and See also:Toulouse. Beresford, with 12,000 men, was now sent to Bordeaux, which opened its gates as promised to the Allies. Driven by Hill from Aire on the 2nd of March 1814, Soult retired by Vic Bigorre, where there was a combat (March 19), and See also:Tarbes, where there was a severe action (March 20), to Toulouse behind the See also:Garonne. He endeavoured also to rouse the French peasantry against the Allies, but in vain, for Wellington's See also:justice and moderation afforded them no grievances. Wellington wished to pass the Garonne above Toulouse in order to attack the city from the south—its weakest side—and interpose between Soult and Suchet. But finding it impracticable to operate in that direction, he left Hill on the west side and crossed at See also:Grenade below Toulouse (April 3). When Beresford, who had now rejoined Wellington, had passed over, the bridge was swept away, which left him isolated on the right bank. But Soult did not attack; the bridge (April 8) was restored; Wellington crossed the Garonne and the Ers, and attacked Soult on the loth of April. In the battle of Toulouse the French numbered about 40,000 (exclusive of the See also:local See also:National See also:Guards) with 8o guns; the Allies under 52,000 with 64 Bette of guns. Soult's position to the north and east of the Toulouse, city was exceedingly strong, consisting of the See also:canal April10, of See also:Languedoc, some fortified suburbs, and (to the97
the 16th of January, attacked Suchet at Molins de Rey and blockaded Barcelona (Feb. 7); the French posts of Lerida, Mequinenza and Monzon had also been yielded up, and Suchet, on the 2nd of March, had crossed the Pyrenees into France. Figueras surrendered to Cuesta before the end of May; and See also:peace was formally signed at Paris on the 30th of May.
Thus terminated the long and sanguinary struggle of the Peninsular War. The British troops were partly sent to England, and partly embarked at Bordeaux for See also:America, with which country war had broken out (see See also:AMERICAN WAR OF 1812—15): the Portuguese and Spanish recrossed the Pyrenees: the French army was dispersed throughout France: See also: The events of the Peninsular War, especially as narrated in the Wellington Despatches, are replete with instruction not only for the soldier, but also for the See also:civil See also:administrator. Even in a brief See also:summary of the war one salient fact is noticeable, that all Wellington's reverses were in connexion with his sieges, for which his means were never adequate. In his many battles he was always victorious, his See also:strategy eminently successful, his organizing and administrative power exceptionally great, his See also:practical resource unlimited, his soldiers most courageous; but he never had an army fully See also:complete in its departments and warlike equipment. He had no adequate corps of sappers and miners, or transport train. In 1812 tools and material of war for his sieges were often insufficient. In 1813, when he was before San Sebastian, the ammunition ran See also:short; a battering train, long demanded, reached him not only some time after it was needed, but even then with only one day's See also:provision of shot and See also:shell. For the siege of Burgos heavy guns were avail-able in See also:store on the coast; but he neither had, nor could procure, the transport to bring them up. By resource and dogged determination Wellington rose superior to almost every difficulty, but he could not overcome all; and the main teaching of the Peninsular War turns upon the value of an army that is completely organized in its various branches before hostilities break out. (C. W. R.) II 1814' extreme east) the commanding ridge of Mont Rave, crowned with redoubts and earthworks. Wellington's columns, under Beresford, were now called upon to make a flank march of some two miles, under artillery, and occasionally musketry, fire, being threatened also by cavalry, and then, while the Spanish troops assaulted the north of the ridge, to See also:wheel up, See also:mount the eastern slope, and carry the works. The Spaniards were repulsed, but Beresford gallantly took Mont Rave and Soult fell back behind the canal. On the 12th of April Welling-ton advanced to invest Toulouse from the south, but Soult on the night of the Iith had retreated towards Villefranque, and Wellington then entered the city. The allied loss was about 5000; the French 3000. Thus, in the last great battle of the war, the courage and resolution of the soldiers of the Peninsular army were conspicuously illustrated. On the 13th of April 1814 See also:officers arrived with the announcement to both armies of the capture of Paris, the See also:abdication of Napoleon, and the practical conclusion of peace; and on the 18th a convention, which included Suchet's force, was entered into between Wellington and Soult. Unfortunately, after Toulouse had fallen, the Allies and French, in a sortie from Bayonne on the 14th of April, each lost about 1000 men: so that some ro,000 men fell after peace had virtually been made. In the east, during this year (1814), Sir W. See also:Clinton had, on RxI. 4 General Craufurd and his Light Division (London, 1891); Sir See also:George Larpent, Private See also:Journal of F. S. Larpent during the Peninsular War (London, 1853); Major-General H. D. See also:Hutchinson, Operations in the Peninsu',a; 1808—9 (London, 19o5); The See also:Dickson See also:MSS., being See also:Journals of Major-General Sir See also: Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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