See also:

• SOURCES

See also:

• GILES (GIL, GILLES), ST

Eng"aving.—According to native historians, the art of See also:

• PRINTING (from Lat. imprimere, O. Fr. empreindre)

See also:

• DOUGLAS
• DOUGLAS, GAVIN (1474?-1522)
• DOUGLAS, JOHN (1721—1807.)
• DOUGLAS, SIR CHARLES
• DOUGLAS, SIR HOWARD
• DOUGLAS, STEPHEN ARNOLD (18,3–1861)

The See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

Lofty towers called l'ai, usually square and of stone, seem to have been a See also:

• COMMON

The See also:

• PAGODA (Port. pagode, a word introduced in the 16th century by the early Portuguese adventurers in India, reproducing phonetically some native word, possibly Pers. but-kadah, a house for an idol, or some form of Sansk. bhagavat, divine, holy)

197, 198. (L. B.) 4. See also:

• SCULPTURE
• SCULPTURE (Lat. sculptura, from sculpere, to carve, cognate with Gr. yXb4ew)

The well-known sculptures on the arch at Chu Yung Kuan (A.D. 1345) are See also:

• HINDU

The See also:

• OLDEST

Nevertheless, it is to a later period that ninety-nine out of a See also:

• HUNDRED

The vessels bearing Arabic See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

At times even some grandly planned vessel will appear with such a See also:

• FESTOON (from Fr. feston, Ital. festone, from a Late Lat. festo, originally a " festal garland," Lat. festum, feast)

But in Chinese, as we shall see, for reasons connected with the peculiar nature of the script, the two soon began to move along See also:

• INDEPENDENT

Among all these, Cantonese is supposed to approximate most nearly to the primitive language of antiquity, whereas Pekingese perhaps has receded farthest from it. But although philologically and historically speaking Cantonese and certain other dialects may be of greater interest, for all See also:

• PRACTICAL

So far, stress has been laid chiefly on the dissimilarity of the dialects. On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

(It must be under-stood, of course, that the above are only equivalents, not in all cases very exact, for the sounds of a non-alphabetic language.) An immediate consequence of this paucity of vocables is that one and the same See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

Thus in A i-shang, " clothes," i denotes more particularly clothes worn on the upper part of the body, and shang those on the See also:

• LOWER

Then, the use of so-called numeratives will often give some sort of clue as to the class of See also:

• OBJECTS

It is absurd to suppose the tones were deliberately invented in order to See also:

• FIT

The native learns the tones unconsciously and by ear alone. For centuries their existence was unsuspected, the first systematic See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

It consists of a number of wholly independent See also:

• UNITS, DIMENSIONS OF
• UNITS, PHYSICAL

In the script of other countries they were gradually transformed into hieroglyphic symbols, after which they either disappeared altogether or became further conventionalized into the letters of an See also:

• ALPHABET (see also WRITING)

The first step in a new, and, as it ultimately proved, the right direction, was the borrowing of a See also:

• CHAR (Salvelinus)

It may be remarked, by the way, that the See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

Objections have been raised in some quarters to this account of the phonetic development of Chinese. It is argued that the primitives and sub-primitives, whereby is meant any character which is capable of entering into combination with another, have really had some influence on the meaning, and do not merely possess a phonetic value. But insufficient evidence has hitherto been advanced in support of this view. The whole body of Chinese characters, then, may conveniently be divided up, for philological purposes, into pictograms, ideograms and phonograms. The first are pictures of objects, the second are composite symbols See also:

• STANDING

4. * hui i, suggestive compounds based on a natural association of ideas. To this class alone can the term " ideographs " be properly applied. 5. (jV chuan chu. The meaning of this name has been much disputed, some saying that it means " turned round "; e.g. © mu " eye " is now written M. Others understand it as comprising a few See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

Roughly, it may be said that the development of writing followed the course previously traced—that is, beginning with indicative signs, and going on with pictograms and ideograms, until finally the See also:

• DISCOVERY

They appear to be responses given by professional soothsayers to private individuals who came to them seeking the aid of See also:

• DIVINATION
• DIVINATION, OMEN, ASTROLOGY

There are many arguments both for and against this view; but it is unquestionable, at any rate, that the introduction of a supple See also:

• IMPLEMENT (Lat. implementum, a filling up, from implere, to fill)

Though a decided improvement on what had gone before, the Lesser Seal was destined to have but a short career of undisputed supremacy. Reform was in the air; and something less cumbrous was soon felt to be necessary by the clerks who had to See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

This is on a stone tablet alleged to have been erected on See also:

• MOUNT, WILLIAM SIDNEY (1807-1868)

The See also:

• DIFFUSION (from the Lat. diffundere; dis-, asunder, and fundere, to pour out)

This in itself does not prove that a Chinese grammar is impossible, nor that, if constructed, it might not be helpful to the student. As a matter of fact, several attempts have been made by foreigners to deduce a grammatical system which should prove as rigid and binding as those of Western languages, though it cannot be said that any as yet has stood the test of time or See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

On the other hand, it would be dangerous even to assert that the word here plays the part of an active verb, because it would be equally permissible to translate the above " Many things are strange to one who has seen but little." Chinese grammar, then, so far as it deals with the classification of separate words, may well be given up as a See also:

• BAD, BCD

The speeches of the Book of History (see Literature) are more manifestly fictitious, by many degrees, than the elaborate orations in See also:

• THUCYDIDES (OovavMns)

At the same time, the term " book language," in its widest sense, covers a multitude of styles, some of which differ from each other nearly as much as from ordinary speech. The See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

In the 3rd and 4th lines, where more laxity is generally allowed, every word again has its counterpart, with the sole exception of ' " wish " and " further." The question is often asked: What sort of See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

Two possible courses, it seemed, were open: either fresh characters would be formed on the radical-phonetic principle, or the new idea might be expressed by the conjunction of two or more characters already existing. The former expedient had been tried on a limited scale in Japan, where in the course of time new characters were formed on the same principle as of old, which were yet purely Japanese and find no place in a Chinese dictionary. But although the field for such additions was boundless, the Chinese have all along been chary of extending the language in this way, probably because these modern terms had no Chinese sound which might have suggested some particular phonetic. They have preferred to adopt the other method, of which 3- tit (rise-descend-See also:

• MACHINE
• MACHINE (through Fr. from Lat. form machina of Gr. µnxavil)

If they should ever fall into disuse, China will have taken a first and most fatal step towards internal disruption. Even the Japanese, whose language is not only free from dialects, but polysyllabic and therefore more suitable for romanization, have utterly refused to abandon the Chinese script, which in spite of certain disadvantages has hitherto triumphantly adapted itself to the needs of civilized intercourse. See P. Premare, Notitiae Linguae Sinicae (1831); Ma Kien-chung, Ma shih wiln t'ung (1899) ; L. C. Hopkins, The Six Scripts (1881) and The Development of Chinese Writing (1910) ; H. A. Giles, A Chinese-English Dictionary (2nd ed., 1910). (H. A. GI.; L. GI.) The literature of China is remarkable (i) for its antiquity, coupled with an unbroken continuity down to the present day; (2) for the variety of subjects presented, and for the exhaustive treatment which, not only each subject, but also each sub-division, each separate See also:

• ITEM (a Latin adverb meaning " also," " likewise ")

No history of Chinese literature in the Chinese language has yet been produced; native scholars, however, have adopted, for See also:

• BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

Rhyme is essential to Chinese poetry; there is no such thing as See also:

• BLANK (from the Fr. blanc, white)

The origin of the seven-word metre is lost in remote antiquity ; the five-word metre was elaborated under the master-hand of Mei Sheng, who died 140 B.C. Passing over seven centuries of growth, we reach the Tang dynasty, A.D. 618-905, the most brilliant epoch in the history of Chinese poetry. These three hundred years produced an extraordinarily large number of great poets, and an output of verse of almost incredible extent. In 1707 an See also:

• ANTHOLOGY

Each word seems to slip naturally into its place; and so far from having been introduced by violence for the ends of See also:

• PROSODY (Gr. rpovwSta)

Tu Fu, A.D. 712–770, is generally ranked with Li Po, the two being jointly spoken of as the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

The long list of Sung poets includes such names as Safi-ma Kuang, Ou-yang Hsiu and Wang An-shih, to be mentioned by and by, the first two as historians and the last as See also:

• POLITICAL

Yet some critics have boldly declared for obscurity of expression, alleging that the piquancy of a thought is enhanced by its skilful concealment. For the foreign student, it is not necessary to accentuate the obscurity and difficulty even of poems in which the See also:

• MOTIVE (from Lat. movere, to move)

Finally, after a glorious reign, he ceded the See also:

• THRONE

It is worth noting, in concluding this brief notice of China's earliest records, that from first to last there is no mention whatever of any distant country from which the " black-haired people " may have originally come; no vestige of any allusion to any other form of civilization, such as that of Babylonia, with its cuneiform script and baked-See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

3. In summer, on the I-See also:

• HAI (939-1038)

Ssu-ma Ch'ien, who flourished 145–87 B.C., was the son of an hereditary grand astrologer, also an eager student of history and the actual planner of The stor)cal the great work so successfully carried out after his death. lhso0 By the time he was ten years of age, SA-ma Chien was already well advanced with his studies; and at twenty he set forth on a round of travel which carried him to all parts of the empire. Entering the public service, he was employed upon a See also:

• MISSION

In 221 B.C. he proclaimed himself the " First Burning Emperor," a title by which he has ever since been known. of the Everything, including literature, was to begin with his Books reign; and acting on the advice of his See also:

• PRIME, PRIMER AND PRIMING

The second division consists of chronological tables; the third, of eight mono raohs on the following topics: (1) See also:

• RITES

(7) Refers to the management of the Hoang Ho, or Yellow river, so often spoken of as " China's Sorrow," and also of the numerous canals with which the empire is intersected. (8) This chapter, which treats of the circulation of See also:

• MONEY

618-906, offers in one sense a curious exception to the general rule. It possesses two histories, both included in the above series. The first of these, now known as the Old Tang History, was ultimately set aside as inaccurate and inadequate, and a New T'ang History was compiled by Ou-yang Hsiu, a distinguished scholar, poet and states-man of the 11th century. Nevertheless, in all cases, the scheme of the dynastic history has, with certain modifications, been that which was initiated in the 1st century B.C. by Ssli-ma Ch'ien. The output of history, however, does not begin and end with the voluminous records above referred to, one of which, it should be mentioned, was in great part the work of a woman. The History has always been a favourite study with the Chinese, See also:

• MIRROR (through O. Fr. mirour, mod. miroir, from a sup-posed Late Lat. miratorium, from mirari, to admire)

Accordingly, it was subjected to revision, and was to a great extent reconstructed by Chu Hsi, the famous commentator, who flourished A.D. 1130-1200, and whose work is now regarded as the standard history of China. Biography.—In regard to biography, the student is by no means limited to the dynastic histories. Many huge biographical collections have been compiled and published by private individuals, and many lives of the same personages have often been written from different points of view. There is nothing very much by which a Chinese biography can be distinguished from biographies produced in other parts of the world. The Chinese writer always begins with the place of birth, but he is not so particular about the year, sometimes leaving that to be gathered from the date of death taken in connexion with the age which the person may have attained. Some allusion is usually made to ancestry, and the steps of an official career, upward by promotion or downward by disgrace, are also carefully noted. Geography and Travel.—There is a considerable volume of t1 Chinese literature which comes under this head; but if we exclude certain brief notices of foreign countries, there remains nothing in the way of general geography which had been produced prior to the arrival of the Jesuit Fathers at the close of the 16th century. Up to that period geography meant the See also:

• TOPOGRAPHY
• TOPOGRAPHY (Gr. Toros, place, -partied', to write)

The Chinese have always been fond of travel, and hosts of travellers have published notices, more or less extensive, of the Fa Hslen. different parts of the empire, and even of adjacent nations, which they visited either as private individuals or, in the former case, as officials proceeding to distant posts. With Buddhism came the See also:

• DESIRE

Also, that Lao Tzu anticipated the Christian doctrine of returning good for evil, a sentiment which was highly reprobated by the practical mind of Confucius, who declared that evil should be met by See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

Confucius, 551–479 u.c., who imagined that his Annals of the Lu State would give him See also:

• IMMORTALITY (Lat. in-, not, mortalis, mortal, from mors, death)

He main- Hs&n Tzu. tamed, in opposition to Mencius, who upheld the Confucian See also:

• DOGMA (Gr. Sbypa, from b6aeiv, to seem; literally " that which seems, sc. good or true or useful " to any one)

Of Wang Chung, a speculative and materialistic philosopher, A.D. 27-97, banned by the orthodox for his attacks on Confucius Wang and Mencius, only one work has survived. It consists Wangg. of eighty-four essays on such topics as the. nature of things, destiny, divination, death, ghosts, poisons, miracles, criticisms of Confucius and Mencius, exaggeration, See also:

• SACRIFICE (from Lat. sacrificium; sacer, holy, and facere, to make)

Had he said, " May I be struck dead by See also:

• LIGHTNING

Thus there may be three lines =, or three broken lines and other such combinations as = and Confucius declared that he would like to give another fifty years to the elucidation of this puzzling text. Shao Yung, A.D. 1011-1077, sought the key in numbers; Ch'eng I., A.D. 1033–1107, in the eternal fitness of things. " But Chu Hsi alone," says a writer of the 17th century, " was able to See also:

• PIERCE, FRANKLIN (1804—1869)

He held that a purely agricultural population would always remain poor; while a purely manufacturing population would See also:

• RISK

The people were to profit by fixity of prices and See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

There is also a well-known work by an artist of the early 13th century, with forty-six woodcuts illustrating the various operations of agriculture and See also:

• WEAVING

Materia Medica, sometimes called the Herbal, a title (i.e. Pen recto) which seems to have belonged to some book of the kind in pre-historic ages. The work under consideration was compiled by Li Shih-then, who completed his task in 1578 after twenty-six years' labour. No fewer than eighteen hundred and ninety-two species of drugs, animal, vegetable and mineral, are dealt with, arranged under sixty-two classes in sixteen divisions; and eight thousand one hundred and sixty prescriptions are given in connexion with the various entries. The author professes to quote from the original Pen Ts'ao, above mentioned; and we obtain from his extracts an insight into some curious details. It appears that formerly the number of recognized drugs was three hundred and sixty-five in all, corresponding with the days of the year. One hundred and twenty of these were called sovereigns (cf. a sovereign See also:

• PRESCRIPTION

Divination, Cec.—The practice of divination is of very ancient date in China, traceable, it has been suggested, back to the Canon of Changes (see above), which is commonly used by the lettered classes for that purpose. A variety of other methods, the chief of which is See also:

• ASTROLOGY

The Canon of Music, which was formerly included in the Confucian Canon, has been lost for many centuries; and the works now avail-able, exclusive of entries in the dynastic histories, are not older than the 9th century A.D., to which date may be assigned the Chieh Ku Lu, a treatise on the deerskin drum, said to have been introduced into China from central See also:

• ASIA

Documents, the subject-matter of which would be recognized to be of no educative value, would still be included, if written in a pleasing style, such as might be serviceable as a model. Individual Authors.—In a similar manner it has always been customary for relatives or See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

The essential of such a collection is, in Chinese eyes, its completeness. Fiction.—Although novels are not regarded as an integral part of literature proper, it is generally conceded that some novels may be profitably studied, if for no other reason, from the point of view of style. With the novel, however, we are no longer on perfectly safe ground in regard to that decency which characterizes, as has been above stated, the vast See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

It contains incidents which recall the licence tolerated in See also:

• FIELDING, ANTHONY VANDYKE COPLEY (1787-1855)
• FIELDING, HENRY (1707-1754)
• FIELDING, WILLIAM STEVENS (1848– )

Dictionaries.—The Erh Ye.., or Nearing the Standard, is commonly classed as a dictionary, and is referred by native scholars generally to the 12th century sec. The entries are arranged under nineteen heads, to facilitate reference, and explain a large number of words and phrases, including names of beasts, birds, plants and fishes. The work is well illustrated in the large modern edition; but the actual date of composition is an entirely open question, and the insertion of229 woodcuts must necessarily belong to a comparatively• late age (see Military Writers). With the Shuo Wen, or Explanation of Written Words, we begin the long list of lexicographical works which constitute such a notable feature in Chinese literature. A scholar, named Hsu Shen, S Wen. who died about A.D. 120, made an effort to bring together huo and analyse all the characters it was possible to gather from the written language as it existed in his own day. He then proceeded to arrange these characters—about ten thousand in all—on a system which would enable a student to find a given word without having possibly to search through the whole book. To do this, he simply grouped together all such as had a common part, more or less indicative of the meaning of each, much as though an English dictionary were to consist of such groups as and so on. Horse-See also:

• COLLAR

It is also of value in another sense. It may be used, with discretion, in testing the genuineness of an alleged ancient document, which, if an important or well-known document before the age of Hsu Shen, would not be likely to contain characters not given in his work. Under this test the Tao re Ching, for instance, breaks down (see Huai-nan Tzu). Passing over a long series of dictionaries and vocabularies which appeared at various dates, some constructed on Hsu Shen's plan, with modifications and improvements, and others, known as phonetic dictionaries, arranged under the finals according to the Tones, we come to the great standard See also:

• LEXICON

according to the phonetics, all the above four being pronounced simply light, without reference to the radical portion which guides towards the limited sense of the term. So, in a phonetic dictionary, we should have such a group as See also:

• BRASS
• BRASS (O. Eng. braes)

Designed especially to meet this difficulty, there are several well-known handbooks, elementary and advanced, which trace such allusions to their source and provide full and lucid explanations; but even the most extensive • of these is on a scale incommensurate with the requirements of the scholar. Again, it is due to the emperor K'ang Hsi that we possess one of the most elaborate compilations of the kind ever planned and carried to completion. The P'ei Wen Yun Fu, or Concordance to Literature, is a key, not only to allusions in general, but to all phraseology, including allusions, idiomatic expressions and other obscure combinations of words, to be found in the classics, in the dynastic histories, and in all poets, historians, essayists, and writers of recognized eminence in their own lines. No attempt at explanation is given; but enough of the passage, or passages, in which the phrase occurs, is cited to enable the reader to gather the meaning required. The trouble, of course, lies with the arrangement of these phrases in a non-alphabetic language. Recourse has been had to the Rhymes and the five Tones (see Language) ; and all phrases which end with the same word form one of a number of groups which appear under the same Rhyme, the Rhymes themselves being distributed over five Tones. Thus, to find any phrase, the first point is to discover what is its normal Rhyme; the next is to ascertain the Tone of that Rhyme. Then, under this Tone-group the Rhyme-word will be found, and under the Rhyme-word group will be found the final word of the phrase in question. It will now only remain to run through this last group of phrases, all of which have this same final word, and the search—so vast is the collection—will usually yield a satisfactory result. The P'ei Wen Yun Fu runs of course to many volumes; a rough estimate shows it to contain over fifteen million words. Encyclopaedias.—In their desire to bring together condensed, yet precise, information on a large variety of subjects, the Chinese may be said to have invented the See also:

• ENCYCLOPAEDIA

Another similar work, dealing with topics drawn from the lighter literature of China, is the T'ai Ping Kuang Chi, which was issued at about the same date as the last-mentioned. Both of these, and especially the former, have passed through several See also:

• EDITIONS

Both the Nanking copies perished at the fall of the Ming dynasty; and a similar See also:

• FATE

6, marked as Political Science, contains such classes as Ceremonial, Music and Administration of Justice, alongside of Handicrafts, making it essential to study the arrangement carefully before it is possible to consult the work with ease. Such preliminary trouble is, however, well repaid, the amount of information given on any particular subject being practically coextensive with what is known about that subject. The method of presenting such information, with variations to suit the nature of the topics handled, is to begin with historical excerpts, chronologically arranged. These are usually followed by sometimes lengthy essays dealing with the subject as a theme, taken from the writings of qualified authors, and like all the other entries, also chronologically arranged. Then come elegant extracts in prose and verse, in all of which the subject may be simply mentioned and not treated as in the essays. After these follow minor notices of incidents, historical and otherwise, and all kinds of anecdotes, derived from a great variety of sources. Occasionally, single poetical lines are brought together, each contributing, some thought or statement germane to the subject, expressed in elegant or forcible terms; and also, wherever practicable, biographies of men and women are inserted. Chronological and other tables are supplied where necessary, as well as a very large number of illustrations, many of these being reproductions of woodcuts from earlier works. It is said that the T'u Shu Chi Ching was printed from movable copper type cast by the Jesuit Fathers employed by the emperor K'ang Hsi at Peking; also that only a hundred copies were struck off, the type being then destroyed. An 8vo edition of the whole encyclopaedia was issued at See also:

• SHANGHAI

According to the views put forth by early Chinese antiquarians, the first written records were engraved with a special knife upon bamboo slips and wooden tablets. The impracticability of such a process, as applied to books, never seems to have dawned upon those writers; and this snowball of See also:

• ERROR (Lat. error, from errare, to wander, to err)

A similar undertaking was carried out in 837, and the later tablets are still standing at a temple in the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

This See also:

• SHEET

Giles, Sun Tzu (1910). (H. A.