See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

Act of 1800. By this See also:

• STATUTE

In certain cases, they were by statute exempted from penal See also:

• CON

In regard to See also:

• REGISTRATION

In 19or the House of Lords overruled Temperton v. Russell in the case of the See also:

• DUKE (corresponding to Fr. duc, Ital. duca, Ger. Herzog)

Amalgamated Society of Railway /ndgment. Servants. The litigation had extended over two years, ending in the House of Lords (December 21, 19o9) upholding the decision of the court of See also:

• APPEAL

Trade unions, in the sense in which the term is now under- stood, appear to be almost exclusively of See also:

• MODERN

In spite of these acts, which made all combinations illegal, there is evidence that trade clubs of journeymen existed and were tolerated in many trades and districts during the first quarter of the loth century, though they were always subject to the fear of prosecution if they took hostile action against employ.ers; and in many cases strikes were suppressed by the conviction of their leaders under these acts or under the common law of conspiracy. The partial protection accorded to societies for the purpose of regulating wages and hours of labour by the law of 1825 led to a rapid multiplication and expansion of trade unions, and to an outburst of strikes, in which, however, partly owing to the widespread commercial depression, the workmen were mostly unsuccessful. Thus the first impetus given to trade unions by the modification of the combination laws was followed by a collapse, which in its turn was followed (in the third See also:

• DECADE (from Gr. Oka, ten)

The period of inflated trade which began in 1871 caused, as usual, another rapid growth of trade combinations, of which the most characteristic feature was their extension to agricultural and general labourers. To meet this new development of combination, the National Federation of Associated Employers of Labour was formed in 1873. The years of depression, 1875—188o, were marked by a series of unsuccessful strikes against reductions of wages, and by a general decline of trade unions, which did not again revive until nearly ten years later, when the new See also:

• WAVE

This federation links the trade unions of the United Kingdom with those of other countries by its See also:

• AFFILIATION (from Lat. ad filiare, to adopt as a son)

The next step in trade union See also:

• EVOLUTION

Thus in 1892 the Engineers revised their rules so as to provide for the See also:

• ELECTION
• ELECTION (from Lat. eligere, to pick out)

Such federations are to he distinguished from national trade unions, inasmuch as their members are societies and not individuals, and as a rule their See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

by which they seek to attain these objects (apart from political methods such as the promotion of legislation or of administrative action by public authorities) are twofold: viz. the support of members when engaged in a collective dispute with employers by the payment of " dispute " benefit, and the See also:

• INSURANCE

The funds of a 1 trade union applicable to trade and friendly purposes are never kept distinct (in the few cases in which some distinction is attempted, the society may " See also:

• BORROW, GEORGE HENRY (18o3-1881)

Number of Membership Unions. of Unions.' 1897 1292 1,622,713 1898 1261 1,659,480 1899 1255 1,820,755 1900 1244 1,928,035 1901 1238 1,939,585 1902 1203 I ,92 5, 800 1903 1187 1,903,596 1904 1153 1,864,374 1905 . 1 136 1,887.823 1906 1161 2, 106.283 Includes a small number of members abroad. The statistics of trade unions are very See also:

• COMPLETE

4o 62,368 3 Clothing ., . . . . 35 60,407 3 See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

In 1906 the income of these too societies was £2,344,157 or .36s. 9id. per See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

The main items of expenditure of trade unions are " dispute " benefit, " unemployed " benefit, various friendly benefits (including sick and accident, superannuation and funeral), and working expenses. The proportions of expenditure on these various objects naturally vary greatly in different groups of unions, and also in different years, some of the items being affected largely by the general state of employment, and the occurrence or See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

II.—See also:

• FOREIGN

Another group of trade unions in Germany, less important as regards number and membership than the above, are the " Gewerkvereine," or non-political trade unions, sometimes known as " See also:

• HIRSCH, MAURICE DE, BARON HIRSCH AUF GEREUTH
• HIRSCH, SAMSON RAPHAEL (r8o8-1888)

See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

In 1907 there were 5156 trade unions in particular trades, with a membership of 501,094, affiliated to the Social Democratic trade unions (Gewerkschaften). Of the total number of unions, 49 were central unions, 77 were district unions and 5030 were local unions. Of the total number of members 454,693 were See also:

• MALES

The membership of unions affiliated to the Central Federation at the end of 1907 is , given in the Volkwirtschaflliche Mitteilungen aus Ungarn as 130,192, compared with 129,332 at the end of 1906. Independent local unions had a membership of 11,838 at the end of 1907. The largest groups of organized workers are in the building trade (35,630), metal workers (27,732), railway employees (17,192) and wood-workers (14,665). Ilaly.—The Bolletino of the See also:

• BUREAU (a Fr. word from burel or bureau, a coarse cloth used for coverings)

See also:

• HOLLAND
• HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
• HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
• HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
• HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
• HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
• HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
• HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART

The Catholic and Liberal associations also do not affiliate with the other organizations. British Dominions and Colonies.—Trade unionism has only developed to any considerable extent in a few of the industrial centres of the self-governing dominions. A great number of the unions in See also:

• CANADA

One of the principal objects of trade unions being to maintain and increase the rates of wages paid to their members, the first question would be practically solved if statistical evidence were available to connect the course of wages with the action of combinations. Such evidence, however, is inconclusive. The period of growth of trade unionism in Great Britain has certainly been on the whole a period of rising wages. But many other causes tending to raise wages have been operative over the same period, and some of the facts might be explained as much by the tendency of rising wages to strengthen combinations as by that of combinations to raise wages. Again, the observed fact that the rise has not been confined to industries in which organizations are strong might be explained either by the supposition that the rise brought about by trade unions has benefited a wider circle than their membership, or that the rise both within and outside the ranks of trade unions is due to causes other than their action. Perhaps the strongest statistical evidence of the power of trade unions to affect wages in particular districts is afforded by the local See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

Strictly professional associations tend generally to become conservative so far as methods of work are concerned; and even trade unions which may not " officially " oppose the introduction of new processes and the use of machinery may nevertheless serve to See also:

• FOCUS (Latin for " hearth " or " fireplace ")

The pressure of rising wages has undoubtedly acted as a stimulus to the invention of labour-saving devices and the See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

Generally speaking, it may be said that while the artificial restriction of the supply of workmen in a trade may raise wages for a time, it calls into play forces tending to restore the See also:

• EQUILIBRIUM (from the Lat. aequus, equal, and libra, a balance)

It is to be expected that experience and the spread of See also:

• EDUCATION

It is also said that See also:

• SAMUEL

Evans. The chief demands advocated by these See also:

• JOURNALS

By 186o the national unions already formed numbered 26. During the next few years, among other important organizations, were instituted what are known as the group of railway brotherhoods, the oldest and largest of which is the Railway International Brotherhood of See also:

• LOCOMOTIVE

The first efforts to found it were made in the See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

The first of these was the Inter-national Association of Working-men, known as the " Inter-national," which was organized in London in the autumn of 1864. This society sought to See also:

• ASSOCIATE (Lat. associates, from ad, to, and sociare to join)

The obligations were in the nature of oaths, taken with much solemnity upon the See also:

• BIBLE
• BIBLE, ENGLISH

So long as the utmost secrecy was retained the order did not grow rapidly; gradually it lost its secrecy and worked on more general plans. From the best evidence that can be secured it is probable that the first local assembly of the Knights of Labour was organized as early as 1873 in Philadelphia. Attempts at outside organization had been unsuccessful. The second assembly consisted of ship carpenters and caulkers employed in See also:

• CRAMP
• CRAMP, CHARLES HENRY (1828— )

It did not reach 50,000 till five years later. The general assembly of 188o, at Pittsburg, denounced strikes as injurious and not worthy of support except in extreme cases. At the fifth session, at Detroit, in 1881, the most important actions in the history of the order were taken, and from this session the, rapid growth of the order may be dated. The assembly then declared that on and after the 1st of January 1882 the name and objects of the order should be made public. It also declared that women should be admitted upon an equal footing with men, and a strong committee was appointed to revise the constitution and the ritual. At the 'next general assembly, September 1882, in New York, the revised constitution was adopted, as well as laws and regulations for supporting strikes. After this the order began to grow rapidly. It antagonized the trade unions, the contention being that the order embraced higher and grander principles than those underlying the organization of the former. The trade unions in existence at that time struggled to preserve their organizations against what they considered the encroachment of the Knights of Labour. The high-water mark of the order was probably during 1883, 1884, 1885 and 1886, when, according to the very best information, it numbered not less than r,000,000 members. In 1900 its membership was estimated at about 130,000. The order of the Knights of Labour is based on the federal plan, and has a See also:

• HIERARCHY (Gr. iepos, holy, and apxe.v, to rule)

The Organizaofficers of the local assembly consist of a master tion.' workman, worthy foreman, See also:

• VENERABLE (Lat. venerabilis, worthy of reverence, venerari, to reverence, to worship, allied to Venus, love; the Indo-Germ. root is wen-, to desire, whence Eng. " win, properly to struggle for, hence to gain)

See also:

• SOVEREIGN

The order is not secret, nor do individual members, through local trades unions or otherwise, owe any See also:

• ALLEGIANCE (Mid. Eng. ligeaunce; med. Lat. ligeantia, &c.; the al- was probably added through confusion with another legal term, allegeance, an allegation; the Fr. allegeance comes from the English; the word is formed from " liege," of which the derivatio

It maintains a journal called the American Federotionist, published at Washington, D.C. The See also:

• DOCTRINE

It was organized for the protection of members in all matters relating to wages and their rights as employes, and affirmed that such employes were entitled to a See also:

• VOICE (Fr. voix, from Lat. vox)

The Industrial Brotherhood of the United States, another secret order, partaking largely of the character of the Knights of Labour, was represented in that convention. As might have been expected, the two ideas—that on which the Knights of Labour was organized and the trade union See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

Their deliberations resulted in the Federation of Organized Trades and Labour Unions of the United States and Canada. Its platform differed but very little from that of the Knights of Labour, although it was in some respects more comprehensive. It demanded eight hours as a day's work; called for national and state incorporation of trade unions; favoured obligatory education of all children, and the prohibition of their employment under the age of fourteen; favoured the enactment of See also:

• UNIFORM

Injury to property, intimidation by threats, personal violence, or boycotts enforced by terrorism, are such unlawful means. The liberty of action thus secured to organizations of labour is equally the right of the employer. Therefore, a statute making it an offence for one to require those whom he employs to withdraw from a trade union is unconstitutional and void (see Reports of American See also:

• BAR
• BAR (0. Fr. barre, Late Lat. barra, origin unknown)
• BAR, CONFEDERATION OF
• BAR, FRANCOIS DE (1538-1606)
• BAR, THE

D.